Jan 17 2025

According to the Swiss Re report, natural catastrophes caused significant losses of $12 billion (over Rs 1 lakh crore) in India in calendar year 2023. 

Key Highlights of the Report

  • Economic Losses in 2023:
    • India suffered total economic losses of $12 billion (over ₹1 lakh crore) in 2023 due to natural catastrophes.
    • These losses were significantly higher than the 10-year average of $8 billion (2013-2022).
    • The primary causes of these losses were floods in northern India and Sikkim, along with Tropical Cyclones (TC) Biparjoy and Michaung.

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  • Key Causes of Economic Losses
    • Floods as a Major Cause of Losses:
      • Floods account for approximately 63% of annual economic losses in India.
      • Major flood events include:
        • The Mumbai floods of 2005, which caused economic losses of $5.3 billion (in 2024 prices).
        • The Uttarakhand floods in 2013, Jammu and Kashmir floods in 2014, Kerala floods in 2018, and northern India floods in 2023.
        • The Chennai floods of 2015, which caused economic losses of $6.6 billion (in 2024 prices).
    • Tropical Cyclones (TC) and Tsunamis
      • Tropical Cyclones:
        • Cyclone Biparjoy (2023): Made landfall in Gujarat, shutting down ports (e.g., Mundra, Kandla) and causing widespread damage in Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
        • Cyclone Michaung (2023): Resulted in extreme rainfall and significant losses in Chennai.
      • Tsunamis: Coastal regions, especially along the eastern coast, are prone to tsunamis.
        • The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami caused widespread destruction in Tamil Nadu and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
      • Vulnerability: India’s 5,700 km coastline is highly exposed to cyclones and tsunamis, impacting urban centers, ports, and industries​​.
    • Earthquake Vulnerability: 58.6% of India’s landmass is prone to moderate to high-intensity earthquakes.
      • New Delhi and Ahmedabad are particularly exposed to earthquake risks.
      • Potential earthquake epicentres include the Himalayas, which could impact Delhi, and regions near urban centres like Mumbai or Delhi.
      • An earthquake similar to the 2001 Bhuj earthquake could cause much greater losses today due to increased asset concentration.

About Natural Catastrophes

  •  A natural catastrophe is an unexpected event, caused by nature, such as an earthquake or flood, in which there is a lot of suffering, damage, or death.

Impacts of Natural Catastrophes

  • Economic Impacts

    • Direct losses: Direct losses include damage to infrastructure, industries, homes, and agricultural lands. For instance, ₹1 lakh crore (USD 12 billion) in economic loss was recorded in 2023 due to floods and cyclones.
    • Indirect losses: Indirect losses result from the disruption of industrial and economic activities, such as the shutdown of ports and supply chains during Cyclone Biparjoy in Gujarat, and a decline in agricultural productivity due to droughts and floods.
    • Insurance gap: Over 90% of natural disaster-related losses in India remain uninsured, increasing financial strain on households and businesses.
  • Humanitarian Impacts

    • Loss of Lives and Livelihoods: Natural catastrophes lead to significant loss of lives and livelihoods. For example, the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and Northern India floods (2023) caused high casualties and displacement of people.
    • Health and Vulnerable Groups: These disasters also increase the risk of waterborne diseases and disproportionately affect vulnerable groups, including economically weaker sections, women, children, and differently-abled individuals.

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  • Environmental Impacts

    • Ecosystem Degradation: Natural disasters degrade ecosystems, leading to loss of biodiversity and damage to forests, wetlands, and coastal ecosystems.
    • Soil and Riverbank Damage: Soil erosion and riverbank destabilization are common consequences of floods.
    • Climate Change Feedback: Climate change intensifies natural disasters, creating a feedback loop of destruction and recovery costs.
  • Social Impacts

    • Displacement and Migration: Displacement and migration are common outcomes, as people lose their homes and livelihoods in disaster-hit regions. 
      • For example, many residents of hill regions are forced to migrate due to landslides and floods.
    • Cultural Heritage Damage: Damage to cultural heritage, including historical monuments and temples, is another significant impact of disasters such as earthquakes and floods.
  • Developmental Impacts

    • Setback to Progress: Natural catastrophes set back developmental progress by destroying infrastructure and assets. 
      • For instance, regions like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra face severe economic strain after major disasters.
    • Increased Poverty: Economic losses disproportionately affect low-income households, increasing poverty levels and inequality.
  • Policy and Governance Impacts

    • Fiscal Strain: Natural disasters impose fiscal strain on governments, as they increase expenditure on disaster relief and recovery efforts. 
      • This often diverts funds from development programs.
    • Policy Reforms: These events drive reforms in disaster risk reduction policies and lead to the establishment of institutions such as the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.

India’s vulnerability to natural catastrophe

  • Geographical Location:
    • Himalayan Region: Prone to earthquakes, landslides, and GLOFs (glacial lake outburst floods).
    • Coastal Areas: A 7,500 km coastline exposed to cyclones, tsunamis, and storm surges, affecting urban centers and industries.
    • River Basins: Flooding, particularly during monsoon, is common in regions like the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Godavari.
  • Climatic Conditions: India’s agriculture relies heavily on monsoons, making erratic rainfall a threat to food and water security.
    • Many regions, particularly in the western and central parts, suffer from reduced water availability and crop failure due to droughts.
  • High Population Density: Rapid population growth and urbanization in hazard-prone areas, particularly in informal settlements, amplify the risks of floods, earthquakes, and landslides.
    • In 2015, Chennai’s drainage system was overwhelmed by flooding due to unchecked encroachment on water bodies.
  • Socio-Economic Factors: Communities in poverty are less equipped to prepare for and recover from disasters, exacerbating the impacts.
    • During the 2013 Uttarakhand floods, rural and impoverished communities in the hilly areas were disproportionately affected due to inadequate infrastructure and preparedness.
  • Deforestation and Environmental Degradation: Deforestation reduces the ability of ecosystems to mitigate the impact of landslides, floods, and storm surges.
    • Uncontrolled agricultural practices and overgrazing lead to soil erosion, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
  • Industrialization and Infrastructure: Rapid development without disaster-resilient infrastructure and the proximity of hazardous industries to populated areas amplify vulnerability during natural catastrophes.
  • Weak Disaster Management Systems: The presence of multiple nodal authorities for different disasters in India, such as the National Center for Seismology for earthquakes and the Department of Mines for mining disasters, creates coordination delays due to overlapping responsibilities and lack of a central fusion center.

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Policy Framework for Disaster Management in India

  • Disaster Management Act 2005: The National Disaster Management Act was enacted in 2005, which brought a paradigm shift in India’s approach to disaster management. 
    • The approach shifted to preparedness, prevention and planning from earlier response and relief centric approaches.
    • Institutional Framework
      • National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Apex body chaired by the Prime Minister and coordinates disaster management efforts at the national level.
      • State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs): Headed by Chief Ministers, implement disaster management policies and plans at the state level.
      • District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs): Led by District Collectors; manage localized disaster responses and implement national and state policies at the district level.
  • National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM): It was created in 2009 to provide a comprehensive framework for disaster management in India. 
    • It aims to shift focus from relief and response to a proactive strategy emphasizing prevention, mitigation, and preparedness.
    • Vision: To build a safe and disaster-resilient India through a holistic, multi-disaster-oriented approach.
    • Key Objectives of NPDM
      • Promotion of Prevention and Preparedness: Foster a culture of prevention, preparedness, and resilience across all levels of society.
      • Integration into Developmental Planning: Integrate disaster management strategies into the developmental planning process.
      • Early Warning Systems: Establish state-of-the-art forecasting and early warning systems supported by effective communication networks.
      • Community Participation: Enhance community participation to ensure last-mile connectivity in disaster management.
      • Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure: Develop disaster-resilient infrastructure and promote the use of sustainable technologies.
  • National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) – 2016
    • The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), established in 2016, aligns with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR), focusing on proactive disaster management rather than only response. 
    • It was created by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) as part of India’s disaster management strategy.
    • Key Features of NDMP:
      • Risk Reduction and Preparedness: Emphasizes preventing and mitigating disaster risks, building resilience across government levels and society.
      • Four Priority Actions (aligned with SFDRR):
        • Understanding Disaster Risk: Improve risk awareness, databases, and community engagement.
        • Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance: Build effective governance structures at national, state, and local levels.
        • Investing in Resilience: Strengthen infrastructure and minimize vulnerabilities.
        • Enhancing Disaster Preparedness: Focus on early warning systems, evacuation plans, and capacity-building.
      • Role of Key Stakeholders: Involves central ministries, state governments, local bodies, and community-based organizations in disaster management.
  • Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) 
    • It is a global partnership that aims to make infrastructure more resilient to climate change and disasters. 
    • The CDRI was launched by India in 2019 at the UN Climate Action Summit. 
    • Involved in CDRI: National governments, UN agencies and programs, Multilateral development banks, The private sector, and Academic institutions. 
    • Goals:
      • Support sustainable development, 
      • Ensure universal access to basic services, 
      • Enable prosperity and decent work, and 
      • Reduce the economic losses 
    • Secretariat: New Delhi, India

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR)

  • The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) is a global strategy adopted by the United Nations in 2015 to reduce disaster risks and build resilience. 
  • It was established during the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan.

Key Priorities of SFDRR

  • Understanding Disaster Risk: Collect and analyze data on disaster risks and vulnerabilities for better risk management.
  • Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance: Ensure coordinated governance and accountability across all sectors and levels of government.
  • Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction: Focus on strengthening infrastructure, urban planning, and environmental management to reduce disaster risks.
  • Enhancing Disaster Preparedness: Establish early warning systems and improve response and recovery strategies.

Recommendations for Mitigating Impacts of Natural Catastrophes

  • Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): Strengthen community engagement through training, and improve disaster management systems by enhancing coordination between national, state, and local authorities for more effective responses.
  • Climate Change Adaptation: Promote climate-smart agriculture, implement sustainable water management practices, and restore coastal ecosystems to protect against the impacts of climate change.
  • Resilient Infrastructure: Ensure the construction of disaster-resilient buildings and roads, and upgrade flood protection infrastructure like embankments and drainage systems.
  • Early Warning Systems: Invest in improved forecasting technologies, and build capacity within communities to effectively use early warning systems and preparedness plans.
  • Insurance and Financial Protection: Expand access to disaster insurance for individuals and businesses, and develop financial mechanisms like catastrophe bonds for faster recovery.
  • Ecosystem-Based Resilience: Implement afforestation and reforestation programs to reduce erosion, and protect wetlands and mangroves as natural barriers against disasters.
  • Sustainable Urban Development: Invest in green infrastructure to manage water resources effectively and reduce urban flooding, and enforce zoning regulations to prevent construction in high-risk disaster zones.
    • The G-Cans project in flood management is being implemented in Tokyo which channels overflowing water through tunnels to avoid flooding.
  • Strengthening Governance and Policy: Integrate disaster risk reduction and climate resilience into national and state-level planning, and decentralize decision-making to empower local governments in leading resilience-building efforts.
    • In Denmark, 36.5% of the national GDP is spent at the local level for social services, allowing local bodies to tailor solutions to ground realities and experiment with innovative approaches.

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Conclusion

Natural catastrophes in India impose significant economic, social, and developmental costs. A comprehensive strategy involving infrastructure resilience, financial safeguards, community participation, and climate adaptation is crucial to mitigating these impacts. 

The death sentence awarded by a Yemen court to nurse Nimisha Priya from Kerala, and the subsequent debates and efforts surrounding her acquittal and repatriation, have brought the focus back on ‘blood money’ and its implications.

About Blood Money

  • Blood money’, or diya, is a practice in Islamic law requiring the perpetrator of a crime to pay a fixed amount of money to the victim or their family, especially in cases of unintentional murder or culpable homicide. 
    • It is not a price on human life but aims to alleviate the victim’s family’s suffering.
  • Invocation: It is invoked when the victim’s family decides not to seek retribution (qisas) and is typically used in cases of accidental death or murder.

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Sharia Law on ‘Blood Money’

Blood Money

  • Under Islamic Sharia law, diya is paid in cases of homicide and is part of a broader legal framework where the community and state retain the right to impose punishment.
  • Factors Affecting Blood Money:
    • Gender, religion, and nationality of the victim can influence the amount to be paid.
    • Different Islamic countries have varying practices, such as in Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan.
  • Amount: There is no fixed sum stated in the Quran for diyya; it is typically negotiated between the families of the victim and the perpetrator.

Examples from Islamic Countries

  • Saudi Arabia: Payment for road accidents and workplace accidents, with amounts fixed by the Sharia courts and special committees.
  • Iran: Women’s compensation is half of that for men. The country has discussed efforts to equalize diya, but full implementation is still pending.
  • Pakistan: Diya and qisas are included in mainstream criminal law under the Criminal Laws (Amendment) Ordinance, 1991.
  • Yemen: Compensation can be decided by the parties with judicial oversight to ensure fairness.

India’s Legal System and Blood Money

  • Absence of Formal Blood Money: India does not formally recognize diya within its legal system.
  • Plea Bargaining: India allows a negotiated settlement where the accused pleads guilty in exchange for a reduced sentence, but it does not directly equate to blood money
    • The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2005 introduced plea bargaining, which can allow the victim to receive compensation (Section 265E).
    • Limitations: Plea bargaining cannot be used for offence which is punishable with life imprisonment or imprisonment of more than seven years or with death.

Global Historical Precedents

  • Ireland (Brehon Law): Éraic (body price) and Log n Enech (honor price) were similar concepts that allowed payments based on the severity of the offense and the victim’s social status.
  • Wergeld (Germany): A compensation system in medieval Germany resembling blood money where compensation was paid to the victim’s family in cases of homicide or other serious crimes.

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Cases Involving Indians and Blood Money

  • Arjunan Athimuthu (Kuwait, 2019): His death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment after ₹30 lakh in blood money was paid.
  • Abdul Rahim (Saudi Arabia, 2006): His death sentence was reduced after ₹34 crore in blood money was paid.
  • UAE Cases (2017-2019): Several Indians were pardoned after paying substantial amounts as blood money, with one case involving ₹4 crore for 17 Indians.

Legal and Ethical Considerations

  • Ethics of ‘Blood Money’: Whether it commodifies human life or whether it serves as a mechanism for restitution and reconciliation in a society bound by religious law.
  • Judicial Oversight: While the practice is common in Islamic nations, its fairness and potential for exploitation (e.g., gender-based inequality in compensation) are often discussed.

African leaders adopted the Kampala Declaration for Africa’s agri-food systems transformation from 2026 to 2035 at the Extraordinary African Union Summit on the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) in Kampala, Uganda.

About African Union (AU)

  • Formation: Established in 2002, succeeding the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
  • Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
  • Members: 55 countries from the African continent.
  • Agenda 2063: Agenda 2063 is the continent’s blueprint and master plan for transforming Africa into the global powerhouse of the future. 
    • It is the concrete manifestation of how the continent intends to achieve this goal within a 50-year period.
    • The First Ten-Year Implementation Plan spanning from 2014 to 2023, outlines a set of goals, priority areas and targets that the continent aims to achieve at national, regional and continental levels.

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About Kampala Declaration

  • Successor: The declaration succeeds the Malabo Declaration, whose implementation concludes in 2025.
  • Focus: It emphasizes transformative agri-food systems to address Africa’s food security and agricultural challenges.
  • Alignment: Integrates with Agenda 2063 (Africa’s development blueprint) and the Africa Common Position on Food Systems.
  • Vision: Advocates for sustainable and resilient agri-food systems for a healthy and prosperous Africa.
  • Approach: Introduces a shift from agriculture-led growth to an agri-food systems approach that considers the entire food value chain.
  • Agri-food systems approach: FAO defines agri-food systems as all the interconnected activities and actors involved in getting food from field to fork.
    • This broad definition encompasses everything from agricultural production and processing to distribution, consumption, and waste management. 
    • It also highlights the critical role of economic, social, and environmental factors in shaping how food reaches our plates.
  • Roadmap: Provides a detailed framework with clear implementation and monitoring strategies.

Background of CAADP and Previous Declarations

Kampala Declaration

  • Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP):
    • Launched in 2003 under the Maputo Declaration to eliminate hunger and reduce poverty through agriculture-led development.
    • Aimed to achieve 10% budget allocation to agriculture and 6% annual agricultural productivity growth.
  • Malabo Declaration (2014):
    • Expanded CAADP to include goals such as eradicating hunger, tripling intra-African trade, and enhancing resilience.
    • Despite efforts, the 2024 Biennial Review Report revealed Africa remains off-track in meeting key commitments like ending hunger by 2025.

CAADP Priority Areas

Kampala Declaration

Persisting Challenges in Africa’s Agriculture Sector

  • Food Security: According to FAO , Africa remains the region with the largest estimated proportion of the population facing hunger  at 20.4 percent.
  • Malnutrition: Despite progress in reducing stunting, malnutrition continues to hinder development and increase mortality rates.
    • Rising obesity and related health issues add economic and health burdens.
  • External Shocks: COVID-19 pandemic, conflicts, the Russia-Ukraine war, and climate change have disrupted agricultural systems.

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Way Forward

  • Strategic Shift: The post-Malabo agenda (2026–2035) introduces an integrated agri-food systems approach addressing challenges across the entire food value chain.
    • Prioritizes sustainability, resilience, and combatting malnutrition through diverse and nutritious diets.
  • Climate-Smart Innovations: Focuses on adopting climate-smart technologies to close agricultural productivity gaps.
    • Ensures food security for Africa’s projected 2.5 billion population by 2050.
  • Resilience Building:Aims to strengthen the ability to adapt to and recover from shocks like climate change and pandemics.
    • In 2023, only two African countries were on track for resilience-building targets.
  • Leadership Commitment: Leaders from Kenya, Ethiopia, Angola, Burundi, and Somalia emphasized the importance of modernizing agriculture for food security and economic growth.

On the eve of Army Day 2025 , Reliance Jio announced the deployment of high-speed 4G and 5G services in Siachen Glacier, the world’s highest and coldest battlefield.

About Siachen Glacier

Siachen Glacier

  • Type: A Piedmont Glacier.
  • Length: The second-longest glacier in the world’s non-polar regions, after the Fedchenko Glacier in Tajikistan.
  • Location:
    • Situated in the Eastern Karakoram Range of the Himalayas.
    • Lies northeast of Point NJ9842, where the Line of Control (LoC) between India and Pakistan ends.
    • It lies North of Leh and East of Aksai Chin. Part of the Union Territory of Ladakh.
  • Hydrology:
    • The Nubra River, a tributary of the Shyok River, originates from the glacier.
    • The Shyok River is part of the Indus River System.

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Piedmont Glacier

  • Definition:
    A piedmont glacier forms when valley glaciers spread out onto relatively flat plains at the base of mountains, creating broad, fan-shaped ice formations.
  • Role:
    • Acts as a significant reservoir of freshwater.
    • Influences local climate and ecosystems.
    • Plays a role in shaping landscapes through glacial erosion and deposition.
  • Examples:
    • Siachen Glacier in the Karakoram Range, India.
    • Malaspina Glacier in Alaska, one of the largest piedmont glaciers globally.
    • Fedchenko Glacier in Tajikistan, a prominent example in Central Asia.

  • Altitude: Originates at Indira Col West (6,115 m) and descends to 3,570 m.
  • Administration: Controlled by India since 1984 under Operation Meghdoot.

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Strategic Significance of Siachen

  • Geographical Significance
    • Overlooks Gilgit-Baltistan (PoK): Dominates routes to Leh and provides strategic observation of Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir.
    • Shaksgam Valley: Monitors the area ceded by Pakistan to China.
    • Proximity to Karakoram Pass: Vital for overseeing the Karakoram Highway, linking Gilgit-Baltistan to China’s Xinjiang province.
  • Strategic Buffer: Acts as a barrier between Pakistan and China, preventing deeper collaboration near critical areas like Kargil and Leh.
  • CPEC Proximity: Close to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a major connectivity initiative that heightens security challenges for India.
  • PLA Presence in Eastern Ladakh: Presence of 60,000 PLA forces near areas like the Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO) airfield intensifies strategic concerns.
  • Two-Front War Challenge: Strengthening military ties between China and Pakistan increases the threat of simultaneous challenges on India’s western and northern borders.

Indonesian President Prabowo Subianto will be the chief guest at the Republic Day Parade 2025 , with the Indonesian Army bringing the largest foreign contingent so far to march down Kartavya Path alongside India’s military.

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About Indonesia

Indonesia

Location

  • Indonesia is an archipelagic nation located off the coast of mainland Southeast Asia, situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
  • Positioned across the Equator, it lies in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Bordering Nations

  • Land Borders: Shares borders with Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste.
  • Maritime Borders: Shares maritime boundaries with India, Australia, Palau, Singapore, Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand.

Indonesia

Geography

  • Physical Features:
    • Consists of over 17,504 islands, including five main islands: Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan (Borneo), Sulawesi, and Papua.
    • Part of the “Ring of Fire,” Indonesia experiences frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
    • Houses over 100 active volcanoes, including Mount Merapi and Mount Krakatoa.
      • Mount Tambora (8,930 ft, 2,722 m), is an active stratovolcano of Indonesia.
  • Highest Point: Puncak Jaya in Papua at 16,502 ft (5,030 m), also the highest island peak globally.
  • Rivers: Significant rivers include Kapuas, Barito, Musi, and Digul, which support diverse ecosystems.
  • Climate: Dominated by a tropical climate with high humidity and monsoonal rainfall.

Distinct Features

  • Largest archipelagic and island country in the world with a total area of 1,904,569 sq. km.
  • Fourth most populous country globally, with the highest Muslim population.
  • Java, the world’s most populous island, is Indonesia’s administrative and economic hub.

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Reasons for Indonesia’s High Vulnerability to Disasters

  • Geographical Location: Positioned along the Pacific Ring of Fire, Indonesia is prone to frequent volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis.
  • Tectonic Activity: Located at the convergence of four tectonic plates, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Pacific, and Philippine Sea leading to high seismic activity.
  • Climate: Tropical climate results in frequent flooding, landslides, and intense tropical storms.
  • Coastal Exposure: Extensive coastlines increase vulnerability to sea-level rise and storm surges.
  • Population Density: High population density in disaster-prone areas exacerbates the impact.
  • Deforestation: Environmental degradation heightens susceptibility to landslides and flash floods.

Recently, Bengaluru-based startup Pixxel successfully launched three high-resolution commercial hyperspectral satellites from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California.

About Firefly Constellation

  • It is a Satellite Constellation.
  • Composition: Comprises six advanced satellites offering the highest resolution in commercial hyperspectral imaging.
  • Launch: Satellites launched from the Vandenberg Space Force Base, California.
  • Capabilities:
    • Detects detailed spectral fingerprints of objects across various wavelengths.
    • Identifies specific characteristics like plant health, soil quality, and pollution levels.
  • Significance: Supports applications in environmental conservation, disaster management, and precision agriculture.
  • Global Impact: Aims to revolutionize data-driven insights with unparalleled imaging accuracy.
  • Watershed moment: The ‘Firefly’ constellation also marks a watershed moment in India’s space journey as the nation’s first commercial satellite constellation.

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About Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HSI)

  • Functionality: Analyses a wide spectrum of light across multiple wavelengths instead of focusing on primary colors (red, green, blue).
  • Spectral Fingerprinting: Captures detailed spectral signatures of objects, enabling more in-depth analysis compared to traditional imaging.
  • Enhanced Capabilities: Goes beyond identifying objects to analyzing their specific characteristics.
    • Example: While traditional satellites identify a forest, HSI satellites can:
      • Differentiate tree species.
      • Assess the health of individual trees.

About Satellite Constellation

  • Definition: A network of identical artificial satellites designed to operate as a unified system.
  • Functionality:
    • Communicates with global ground stations.
    • Interconnects satellites to enhance collective performance.
  • Examples of Satellite Constellation:
    • OneWeb: Provides global broadband services with nearly 700 satellites.
    • GPS Constellation (USA): Enables global navigation and positioning services.
    • Starlink:  It is the largest Satellite Constellation which operates 2,146 active satellites, making it the largest satellite constellation globally.

The Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, recently approved the establishment of the 8th Pay Commission. 

About 8th Pay Commission

  • This move aims to revise salaries and allowances for central government employees and pensioners. Scheduled to replace the 7th Pay Commission (implemented in 2016).
  • The new commission will impact over 49 lakh employees and 65 lakh pensioners.

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About Pay Commission

  • Introduction: A Pay Commission is constituted by the Central Government approximately every ten years to review and recommend changes to the pay structures of its employees.
  • Nodal Agency : Department of Expenditure (Ministry of Finance).
  • The recommendations of a Pay Commission apply to:
    • Central Government Employees: Those paid from the Consolidated Fund of India.
    • Civil and Military Personnel: Employees from all central civil services and defense services.
    • Pensioners: Retired personnel receiving pensions from the government.
    • Notably, employees of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) and autonomous bodies are excluded. PSU employees follow separate pay scales specific to their organization.

Dearness Allowance

  • Dearness Allowance (DA) is a cost-of-living adjustment paid to Indian central government employees and pensioners to offset inflation and maintain purchasing power.
  • Inflation Parameter: DA is calculated based on the Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI-IW), which measures inflation trends.
  • DA Hike Applicability: DA hikes are applied to the basic pay of central government employees and pensioners, excluding any allowances or additional perks.

  • Formula for DA: The commission also suggests formulas for revising dearness allowance and dearness relief for central government employees and pensioners, aiming to offset the impact of inflation.
  • The Pay Commission comprises:
    • Chairman: A senior government official or expert in finance or public policy.
    • Two Members: Experts in fields like finance, public administration, or law.
    • Support Staff: Administrative and research personnel to assist in data collection and analysis.

Factors Affecting Pay Commission Decisions

  • Economic Conditions: The country’s fiscal health, GDP growth, inflation rates, and revenue collections significantly influence the commission’s recommendations.
  • Employee Demands: Unions and associations often advocate for higher wages, improved allowances, and better working conditions.
  • Cost of Living: The commission considers factors like inflation, housing costs, and education expenses, which directly affect an employee’s quality of life.
  • Global Comparisons: Pay parity with international standards in similar roles is sometimes taken into account, especially for defense and specialized positions.
  • Technological Advancements: The growing reliance on technology and increasing skill requirements influence the revision of salaries and allowances.
  • Budgetary Constraints: While addressing employee demands, the commission must ensure recommendations align with the government’s fiscal capabilities to avoid undue strain on the exchequer.

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Impact of the Pay Commission

  • Economic Growth: Higher salaries improve consumption, fueling demand in sectors like real estate, automobiles, and consumer goods.
  • Government Expenditure: Implementation of recommendations often increases the fiscal burden, necessitating careful budget planning.
  • Employee Morale: Fair and revised pay scales enhance employee satisfaction and productivity.
  • Pensioner Welfare: Revised pensions provide financial security for retirees, ensuring their dignity and quality of life.

The Supreme Court recently ruled that maintenance proceedings are independent of restitution of conjugal rights. 

What are Conjugal Rights?

  • Conjugal rights are rights created by marriage, i.e. right of the husband or the wife to the society of the other spouse. 
  • The law recognises these rights, both in personal laws dealing with marriage, divorce etc, and in criminal law requiring payment of maintenance and alimony to a spouse.
  • Section 9 of the Hindu Marriage Act recognises one aspect of conjugal rights that is the right to consortium and protects it by allowing a spouse to move court to enforce the right.

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What is Restitution of Conjugal Rights?

  • Definition: Restitution of conjugal rights refers to restoring marital companionship and obligations previously enjoyed by the couple.
    • It aims to preserve the sanctity of marriage and encourage cohabitation.
  • Origin of Conjugal Right: The concept of restitution of conjugal rights is codified in Hindu personal law now, but has colonial origins and has genesis in ecclesiastical law. 
    • Similar provisions exist in Muslim personal law as well as the Divorce Act, 1869, which governs Christian family law
  • Legal Provision:
    • Governed by Section 9 of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA).
    • The aggrieved spouse can petition the court if the other spouse has withdrawn from their society without reasonable excuse.
  • Court’s Role: The court assesses the truthfulness of claims and ensures no legal impediments before issuing a decree of restitution.
  • Explanation: The burden of proving a reasonable excuse lies on the spouse who has withdrawn from the other’s society.

Recent SC Ruling on Maintenance

  • Key Judgment: The SC ruled that maintenance and restitution of conjugal rights are independent issues.
    • A wife is entitled to maintenance even if she does not comply with a restitution decree.
    • The court emphasized  that a husband must continue paying maintenance even if the wife refuses to return to the matrimonial home under a restitution decree.
  • Precedents: The SC referred to cases where maintenance was granted despite non-compliance with restitution orders.
  • Implications: The judgment underscores that maintenance aims to ensure financial support and dignity for the wife, irrespective of marital disputes.

Constitutionality of Section 9

  • Challenges: In 1983, the Andhra Pradesh High Court struck down Section 9, arguing it violated individual autonomy and privacy.
    • The Supreme Court overturned this in Saroj Rani v. Sudarshan Kumar Chadha (1984), stating it served a social purpose.
  • Current Debate: A pending PIL (2019) argues Section 9 violates gender equality and privacy rights.

Key Legal Provisions Involved

  • Restitution of Conjugal Rights: Section 9 of the HMA aims to reconcile differences and protect marital bonds.
  • Divorce Provisions: Section 13 of the HMA allows dissolution of marriage on grounds such as adultery, cruelty, desertion, mental disorder, and mutual consent.
  • Maintenance: Section 125 of the CrPC provides for financial support to the wife, children, and parents in cases of neglect or inability to maintain themselves.

Significant Case Laws

  • Saroj Rani v. Sudarshan Kumar Chadha (1984): Upheld Section 9, emphasizing its role in preventing marital breakdowns.
  • Tripura HC Ruling (2017): Stated that non-compliance with a restitution decree does not automatically disqualify a wife from receiving maintenance.
  • XYZ And ABC (2023): The High Court of Karnataka in the case of XYZ And ABC, held that the wife’s failure to comply with restitution of conjugal rights decree is a ground for divorce

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Criticism of Restitution of Conjugal Rights

  • Patriarchal Bias: Critics argue it perpetuates the notion of a wife as property and enforces outdated gender roles.
  • Violation of Privacy: The provision is seen as infringing on personal autonomy and the right to be let alone.

Conclusion

The legal framework around restitution of conjugal rights reflects the tension between preserving marriage and respecting individual rights. While the SC’s recent rulings prioritize financial security for spouses, ongoing debates highlight the need to balance societal norms with modern constitutional values.

The Indian rupee has registered a sharp devaluation with respect to the dollar recently.

  • The rupee has depreciated over 3.2% since September 2024 and has hit an all-time low of 86.71 against the US dollar.

RBI’s Response

Weakening of Rupee

  • Intervention: RBI is intervening in the FOREX market by artificially increasing the supply of dollars in the foreign exchange market to support  the decline of value of the rupee.
    • As a result, India’s foreign exchange reserves dropped to an eight-month low of $640 billion from over $700 billion.
    • RBI’s Traditional Stance: It has been to manage the rupee’s exchange value in such a way as to allow for a gradual depreciation in its value without too much volatility that could disrupt the economy.

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Reasons for the Depreciation

  • US Dollar Strengthening: The US Dollar is getting stronger against other world currencies due to factors like improved macroeconomic scenario in the US including market expectations of reduced US trade deficits and safe-haven buying of dollar assets. 
  • Foreign Investors Exit: Due to expectations of a Fed Rate cut by the US, the bond yields in the US have risen attracting investors, who are exiting emerging markets like India. 
  • Trump Effect: The election of Donald Trump has also fueled speculations about the uncertainty regarding the new US government policies contributing to the rupee’s fall.
  • Oil Crisis: Oil price volatility due to ongoing geopolitical tensions (Russia-Ukraine war, Middle East crisis, Red Sea shipping issues
  • Higher Inflation in India: Higher inflation in India compared to the U.S. due to the Reserve Bank of India’s looser monetary policy is traditionally attributed for longer term trend of the rupee’s depreciation against the dollar

Impacts of the weakening of Rupee

  • Imported Inflation: A weak rupee leads to expensive imports resulting in increase in the import bill of the country. Weaker rupee means more expensive imports which hike inflation in the country. 
    • Example: India’s import dependency on crude oil is nearly 88% and higher oil prices lead to higher transport costs, making food items costlier.
  • Competitive Exports: A weaker rupee will help make exports more competitive and by protecting the interest of domestic manufacturers from cheap import substitutes.
    • Export centric sectors like pharmaceuticals, textiles and IT sectors will stand to  benefit from an improvement in export revenues in rupee terms
  • Rise in Input Cost: The depreciation of the rupee leads to an increase in the cost of raw materials, components, and other inputs that are denominated in dollars.
  • Trade Deficit: Higher import bill worsens trade deficit dampening economic growth by creating upward pressure on interest rates. 
  • Costlier Debt: Debt servicing costs of companies that have raised funds from overseas will go up. 
  • Foreign Education: Foreign education will become more expensive. Students now need to pay more rupees for every dollar charged by foreign institutions as fees.
  • Remittances: Non-resident Indians (NRIs) who send money back home will end up sending more in the rupee value.

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Steps to Strengthen the Rupee

  • To Sell Dollars: RBI can directly intervene in the foreign exchange market by selling US dollars from its foreign exchange reserves increasing dollar supply, reducing its demand and thus weakening the dollar relative to the rupee. 
  • Buying Rupees: By buying rupees, the RBI can increase the demand for the Indian currency, strengthening it.
  • Interest Rate Adjustments: The RBI can adjust interest rates to influence the demand for the rupee. Higher interest rates can attract foreign investors, increasing the demand for the rupee.
  • Liquidity Management: By controlling the liquidity in the market, the RBI can impact the exchange rate. Tightening liquidity can reduce inflationary pressures and strengthen the rupee

The World bank has recently released the January edition of its biennial Global Economics Prospects report.

Key Highlights of the Report

Global Economics Prospects Report

  • Global Forecast:
    • Inflation: It is expected to slow down to an average rate of 2.7 per cent in 2025 and 2026, close to many central bank targets from over 8 per cent two years ago
    • Steady but Subdued Growth: The world economy will expand to 2.7 per cent in 2025 and again in 2026 showing a lackluster growth. 
      • Growth is running 0.4 percentage points below the 2010-2019 average which is insufficient to tackle poverty.
    • Risk: The global economy is facing downside risks such as adverse policy shifts and heightened policy uncertainty, growing trade fragmentation, slowing progress in reducing inflation, and weaker activity in major economies. 
  • Developing Economies Growth:
    • Rate: For low and middle-income developing countries, growth is expected to come in at 4.1 per cent this year and slow slightly to 4 per cent in 2026.
    • Decelerating Growth: The Developing nations excluding China and India, has shown a decelerating trend from a robust average of 5.9 per cent a year in the 2000s to just 3.5 per cent in the 2020s. 
    • Negative Externalities: Developing economies are prone to sluggish investment, high levels of debt, the increasing costs of climate change and growing protectionism hurting exports.
  • Low Income Economies Growth: The bank expects low-income countries growth to rebound to 5.7 per cent this year and 5.9 per cent in 2026 due to easing of conflict in some places.
  • Third World Countries: The world’s poorest countries with per-person annual incomes below USD 1,145 grew just 3.6 per cent in 2024.
    • Reason: The main reason being escalating conflict and violence in these economies (Gaza and Sudan)  and lingering damage from the adverse shocks like  COVID-19 and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
  • On India:  India  is expected to see a 6.7 per cent expansion both in 2025 and 2026 and has supplanted China as the world’s fastest-growing major economy.
    • Reason: The growth of demand in rural areas, a recovery in farm production has boosted consumer spending though inflation and slow lending growth have discouraged shoppers in cities.

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World Bank

  • Establishment: The World Bank was established in 1944 to help rebuild Europe and Japan after World War II.
    • It is one of the five institutions created at Bretton woods in 1944 and is affiliated to the United Nations.
  • Membership: It has 189 member countries
    • India is a founding member.
  • Institution: World Bank comprises of five institutions:
    • International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD): It provides commercial or concessional loans to only sovereign states or projects backed by sovereign states.
    • International Development Association (IDA): It helps the world’s poorest countries and aims to reduce poverty by providing interest-free loans (called IDA Credits)
    • International Finance Corporation (IFC): It finances the private sector investment, mobilizing capital in the international financial markets, and providing advisory services to businesses and governments.
    • Multilateral Investment Guarantee (MIGA): It promotes foreign direct investment (FDI) into developing countries to help support economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve people’s lives.
    • International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID): The world’s leading institution devoted to international investment dispute settlement.
  • Key Reports:
    • Global Financial Development Report; Commodity Markets Outlook; World Development Reports

SVAMITVA Scheme

Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi will distribute over 65 lakh property cards under the SVAMITVA Scheme on 18th January via video conferencing.

About SVAMITVA Scheme

  • SVAMITVA stands for Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas.
  • It  is  a Central Sector scheme of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj 
  • Launch Date: April 24, 2020 (National Panchayati Raj Day)
  • Objectives of the Scheme
    • Boost economic development in rural areas by providing property owners with ‘Record of Rights’ for their houses in inhabited areas.
      • It utilizes drone technology for accurate land surveying.
    • Facilitate monetization of properties for institutional credit through bank loans.
    • Reduce property-related disputes.
    • Enable better property assessment and collection of property tax in rural areas.
    • Support village-level planning through improved records.
    • Progress of the Scheme
      • Drone surveys have been completed in over 3.17 lakh villages, covering 92% of the target.
      • 2.25 crore property cards have been prepared for over 1.53 lakh villages.
        • Surveys are completed in major states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and several Union Territories.

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Third launch pad

Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the establishment of a third launch pad at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh India’s only spaceport.

What is a launch pad?

  • A launch pad is a specially designed platform used to support and launch rockets or spacecraft into space.
  • Importance of the Third Launch Pad
    • Supports Next-Generation Launch Vehicles (NGLVs):
      • Essential for launching heavier and advanced rockets.
      • Facilitates future missions like:
        • Bharatiya Antariksh Station (India’s space station).
        • Indian Crewed Lunar Landing within the next 15 years.
    • Enhances India’s Space Capabilities:
      • Expands India’s capacity to plan and execute ambitious space missions and Adds to the existing launch infrastructure:
        • First Launch Pad (FLP): Supports Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (rocket that Launches satellites into orbit) and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
        • Second Launch Pad (SLP): Supports Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
          • And Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3)
    • Boosts Start-Up Ecosystem:
      • Provides infrastructure to support the growing Indian space sector.
      • Encourages innovation and entrepreneurship in space technology.

Strategic Importance of Sriharikota

  • Proximity to the Equator : Geographic Advantage: Sriharikota’s location near the equator (13°N latitude) helps rockets gain an extra boost from the Earth’s rotational speed, reducing fuel requirements.
  • Existing Facilities: The site already has two operational launch pads and robust infrastructure, making it cost-efficient to add a third launch pad.

 

Fast Track Immigration-Trusted Traveller Program (FTI-TTP)

Context: The Union Home Minister is launching the Fast Track Immigration—Trusted Traveller Program (FTI-TTP) as part of the Viksit Bharat@2047 vision, enhancing immigration facilities at major Indian airports.

About FTI-TTP

  • Objective: To provide world-class immigration facilities ensuring safe and seamless travel for international travellers.
  • Initial Launch: Introduced on June 22, 2024, at Indira Gandhi International Airport (IGI), New Delhi, free of cost for Indian citizens and OCI cardholders.
  • Phase-I Implementation:
    • Rolled out in 2025 at 21 major airports nationwide.
    • Airports included in the first phase: Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Cochin.

Significance of FTI-TTP

  • Enhances the travel experience by streamlining immigration processes.
  • A milestone towards achieving the goals of Viksit Bharat@2047.

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Archipelago Cabo Verde

Context: The World Bank in its recently released report, The Country Climate and Development Report (CCDR) estimates that Cabo Verde will need to invest $140 million per year till 2030, to address its climate and development challenges. 

About Cabo Verde

  • Cabo Verde is named after the westernmost cape of Africa, Cape Verde which is located in nearby Senegal and is the nearest point on the continent.
  • Location: The Republic of Cabo Verde, is an island country and archipelagic state of West Africa located in the central Atlantic Ocean.
  • Archipelago: It is a group of ten volcanic islands with a combined land area of about 4,033 square kilometres
  • Official Language: Portuguese.
  • Capital City: Praia on the Santiago Island

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