The Union Cabinet has approved the launch of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) with an expenditure of Rs.16,300 crore and expected investment of Rs.18,000 crore by PSUs, etc.

About National Critical Mineral Mission

• Announced in Union Budget 2024-25
• Objective: To secure India’s critical mineral supply chain by ensuring mineral availability from domestic and foreign sources. 
  • Strengthening the value chains by enhancing technological, regulatory, and financial ecosystems to foster innovation, skill development, and global competitiveness in mineral exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recycling.
• Duration: FY 2024-25 to FY 2030-31.

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Key Features of NCMM

• Scope: Covers entire value chain—exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recovery from end-of-life products.
• Exploration: Intensified exploration within India and offshore areas.
• Regulatory Process: Fast-track approval for critical mineral mining projects.
• Financial Incentives: Provided for exploration and recovery from overburden and tailings.

Mission Components

1. Increasing Domestic Production: Expand exploration and mining (1200 projects, 100+ blocks auctioned),  Mining in offshore areas (Polymetallic nodules), fast-track regulatory approvals, and recover critical minerals from overburden, tailings, and waste materials.
2. Acquisition of Assets Abroad: Encourage PSUs and private companies to acquire critical mineral assets overseas, with government support for mapping, exploration, and infrastructure development in resource-rich countries.
3. Recycling of Critical Minerals: Develop guidelines and incentive schemes for recycling, and establish a Recycling Advisory Group to optimize recovery from domestic and imported products.
4. Trade and Markets: Enhance trade with resource-rich countries, eliminate import duties on critical minerals, and develop a National Critical Mineral Stockpile to guard against supply disruptions.
5. Scientific Research & Technological Advancement: Promote R&D, establish Centers of Excellence, and simplify regulations to foster innovation and global collaboration in critical mineral technologies.
6. Human Resource Development: Develop skilled workforce through targeted degree programs, scholarships, and capacity-building programs for resource-rich countries.
7. Funding and Fiscal Incentives: Develop fiscal measures to incentivize exploration and mining, leverage international funding, and integrate with existing schemes for financing mission activities.

Governance Framework

• Mission Secretariat: It will be created.
  • Led by Joint Secretary, includes geologists, mineral economists, and industry professionals.
• Empowered Committee: Chaired by Cabinet Secretary, includes members from relevant ministries to monitor and review mission activities.
  • The Ministry of Mines will be the administrative Ministry.

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About Critical Minerals

• Definition: These are the minerals which are essential for economic development and national security but the scarcity and limitation of its geographical availability leading to supply chain vulnerability and disruption constitute its criticality.
• Major Critical Minerals: The Report of the Committee on Identification of Critical Minerals constituted by Ministry of Mines has identified 30 critical minerals,
  • Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium and Cadmium.
• Top Producers: According to the International Energy Agency, the major producers of critical minerals are China, Congo, Chile, Indonesia, South Africa, and Australia. 
  • China has global dominance in terms of processing.
• Usage: 
  • Advanced Electronics: They are critical for making semiconductors and high-end electronics manufacturing.
  • Clean Energy Technology: These minerals are an essential component in many clean energy technologies, from wind turbines and solar panels to electric vehicles.
  • Transport and Communications: They are also used in manufacturing fighter jets, drones, and radio sets, Aircrafts and mainly power the transition to Electric Vehicles
  • Diverse Sectors: To manufacture advanced technologies in diverse sectors such as mobile phones, tablets, electric vehicles, solar panels, wind turbines, fibre optic cables, and defence and medical applications.
  • Battery and Storage Technology: These minerals are critical to develop the storage technology in terms of advancements in battery technology like Lithium-Ion.

Importance of Critical Minerals

• Key Role in Green Energy Transition: Essential for technologies like batteries (lithium, cobalt), solar panels (silicon, silver), and wind turbines (rare earth elements).
  • As per the International Energy Agency (IEA), lithium demand rose by 30% in 2023, while demand for nickel, cobalt, and graphite grew 8–15%.
• Global Climate Goals: Critical to achieving the net-zero emissions target and limiting global warming to 1.5°C.
  • Projections by IEA: By 2040, demand is expected to increase:
    • Lithium (8x), graphite (4x), cobalt, nickel, and rare earths (2x).
• Economic and Strategic Importance: Aggregate global value of critical minerals pegged at $325 billion in 2023.
  • Crucial for manufacturing defense equipment, EVs, and semiconductors.

Reserves of Critical Minerals in India

• Graphite: India has 9 million tonnes of reserves, with production reported from 12 mines.
  • Tamil Nadu was the leading producer of graphite in India in 2021-22, accounting for 63% of the total output. Odisha was the second leading producer.
  • Arunachal Pradesh has the highest graphite reserves in India, with 43% of the country’s total resources.
• Lithium: India’s first lithium reserves were discovered in Jammu and Kashmir in 1999. 
  • The Geological Survey of India (GSI) also discovered lithium reserves in Rajasthan’s Degana, which are believed to be larger than the reserves in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Ilmenite (Titanium): India holds 11% of global deposits, yet imports $1 billion worth of titanium dioxide annually.
  • Odisha is the leading producer of ilmenite in India, contributing 60% of the country’s total production in 2021-22. 
  • Kerala and Tamil Nadu are the second and third largest producers, respectively. 
• Phosphorous: Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh are the two states in India that produce the most phosphate rocks:
  • Rajasthan: 31% of India’s total rock phosphate reserves and resources
  • Madhya Pradesh: 19% of India’s total rock phosphate reserves and resources 
• Potash: Rajasthan is the highest producer of potash in India, contributing 91% of the country’s total potash resources. 
  • The state has an estimated 2.4 billion tons of potash reserves, which is about 90% of India’s total estimated reserves.
  • Other Major reserves are located in Madhya Pradesh (Panna district), and Uttar Pradesh (Sonbhadra and Chitrakoot districts).
• Rare Earth Elements (REE): India has an estimated 11.93 million tonnes of monazite from beach sand containing 55–65% rare earth oxides.
  • Andhra Pradesh is the state in India with the highest resources of rare earth elements (REEs), with 3.69 million tonnes.
  • Other states with REE resources include: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha.
• Platinum Group Elements (PGE): About 15.7 tonnes of PGE are located in Odisha (Nilgiri, Boula-Nuasahi, Sukinda) and Karnataka (Hanumalpura).

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Import Dependency of Critical Minerals

• Lithium: India is 100% import-dependent for lithium, primarily sourced from Chile, Russia, and China.
• Cobalt: Completely imported, with key sources being China, Belgium, and Japan.
• Nickel: 100% imported from countries such as Sweden, China, and Indonesia.
• Vanadium: Fully imported, mainly from Kuwait, Germany, and South Africa.
• Germanium: Entirely imported from China, South Africa, and France.
• Rhenium: India relies on imports from Russia, the UK, and China.
• Beryllium and Tantalum: Fully imported, with no domestic reserves reported.
• Silicon: India produces limited quantities and relies heavily on imports from China, Malaysia, and Norway.

Government Initiatives for Production of Critical Minerals

• Amendments to the Mines and Minerals Act (2023): The government has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 to allow the auction of critical mineral blocks. The first auction was held in November 2023 for 20 blocks. 
  • These amendments aim to enhance private sector involvement in exploration and mining.
  • The streamlined auction process and introduction of Exploration Licenses aim to facilitate tapping into deep-seated and untapped mineral reserves.
• Strengthening Refining and Processing Capabilities: India has initiated efforts to build domestic refining and processing infrastructure to reduce its reliance on imports for downstream processes.
  • During 2024, under the R & D Component of Science and Technology Programme of the Ministry of Mines, 10 R & D Projects related to extraction, recovery and recycling of critical minerals have been approved for taking up through various Indian Institutes and research laboratories.

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International Cooperation on Critical Minerals

• Bilateral Partnerships:
  • Australia: In March 2022, KABIL signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Australia for a critical mineral investment partnership and established the Australia-India Critical Minerals Research Hub. 
  • These initiatives focus on lithium and cobalt projects and research on sustainable mining.
  • Latin America (Argentina, Chile, Bolivia): India signed a $24 million lithium exploration pact with a state-owned enterprise in Argentina in January 2024 for five lithium brine blocks.
    • KABIL acquired 15,703 Ha in Argentina for lithium exploration.
    • KABIL is actively working on securing mineral supplies by facilitating the acquisition of assets in Bolivia and Chile. 
  • United States: India is negotiating a pact to enhance supply chains for cobalt, lithium, nickel, and rare earth elements under the U.S.-led Mineral Security Partnership (MSP).
  • Canada and Brazil: India is exploring cooperation in mining and critical mineral supply chains through bilateral engagements.
  • Collaboration with Central Asia: In November 2024, India and Kazakhstan formed a joint venture called IREUK Titanium Limited to produce titanium slag in India.
    • India has proposed the establishment of an India-Central Asia Rare Earths Forum to leverage the region’s rich resource base.Multilateral Partnerships:
  • Mineral Security Partnership (MSP): India joined as the 14th member in June 2023 to promote resilient and responsible critical mineral supply chains globally. 
  • Quad and Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF): India participates in these frameworks to strengthen clean energy technologies and critical mineral supply chain resilience.G20 and G7: India has actively advocated for principles ensuring equitable and resilient supply chains for critical minerals through these platforms.
  • International Energy Agency: India’s Ministry of Mines signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the International Energy Agency to streamline policies, regulations, and investment strategies for the critical minerals sector in line with global best practices.
  • Initiative on Critical & Emerging Technologies (iCET): Announced in May 2022, with annual review meetings.
    • 12 projects prepared under iCET involving GSI, IBM, and IREL, in collaboration with US institutes.
  • Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad): Strategic forum involving India, USA, Australia, and Japan.
    • Focus on clean energy supply chains and critical minerals, with the establishment of the Quad Investors Network (QIN).
  • Engagement with the Global South: India has initiated partnerships with African nations, including Zambia, Congo, and Namibia, for sourcing minerals like copper and cobalt.
  • These collaborations emphasize ethical sourcing, fair practices, and diversifying mineral supply chains.

Challenges in India’s Critical Minerals Mission 

• Heavy Import Dependence: India is almost entirely dependent on imports for critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
  • In FY 2023-24, India spent over ₹34,000 crores on importing lithium, cobalt, nickel, and copper, with 70–80% of lithium imports coming from China.
  • India procured 50,000 tonnes of amorphous graphite and 5,300 tonnes of nickel oxide from China between 2017 and 2023.
• China’s Dominance in Supply Chains: China controls approximately 60% of global production and 85% of processing capacity for critical minerals, including rare earths, lithium, and cobalt.
  • China processes 59% of lithium and 73% of cobalt globally, dominating the midstream and downstream value chains.
  • In 2023, China imposed export restrictions on graphite and other minerals, disrupting global supply chains.
• Lack of Domestic Processing Capabilities: India lacks the infrastructure for refining and processing critical minerals, which are essential for downstream industries.
  • Most mineral blocks auctioned in India remain unsold due to insufficient domestic processing technologies.
• Technological and R&D Deficits: There is limited investment in research and development for extraction and refining technologies.
  • Deep-seated minerals like cobalt and nickel remain unexplored in India due to the absence of advanced mining techniques.
• Geopolitical Vulnerabilities: Dependence on a few countries for critical minerals exposes India to supply disruptions due to geopolitical tensions.
  • During the 2010 China-Japan dispute, China imposed export bans on rare earths, severely impacting Japan’s tech industry.
  • The ongoing U.S.-China rivalry has seen tit-for-tat restrictions on critical mineral exports, highlighting the risks of concentrated supply chains.
• Insufficient Private Sector Participation: The private sector’s involvement in exploration and processing is limited due to unclear policies and high risks.
  • Despite amendments to the Mines and Minerals Act in 2023, auctions for critical mineral blocks failed to attract sufficient private sector interest.
• Environmental and Ethical Concerns in Sourcing: Global mining practices often face scrutiny for human rights violations and environmental degradation.
  • Allegations against Chinese firms in the Democratic Republic of Congo include child labor and forced evictions in cobalt mining operations.

Way forward

• Policy Reforms and Incentives: India needs to accelerate domestic mining and processing capabilities through viability gap funding and increased R&D investments.
  • PSUs and private sectors to be encouraged to actively participate in acquiring mineral assets abroad and/or make financial investments.
• Diversification of Supply Sources: India must reduce its reliance on China by strengthening partnerships with countries in Latin America, Africa, and Australia.
  • The country should explore alternative sources for synthetic graphite, including Mozambique, Madagascar, and Brazil.
• Strengthening Multilateral Engagements: India should take a leading role in global dialogues for equitable access to critical minerals through frameworks like MSP and Quad.
  • Multilateral engagements must focus on building resilient and sustainable supply chains for these vital resources.
• Technological and R&D Collaboration: India should partner with advanced economies like the United States and Japan to acquire cutting-edge refining and recycling technologies.
  • Investments in recycling technologies can help reduce dependency on raw material imports and create a circular economy for critical minerals.
• ESG (environmental, social, and governance) compliance: India must ensure ESG (environmental, social, and governance) compliance in its sourcing practices, especially in partnerships with countries like Congo and South American nations.

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Conclusion

The National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) aims to secure India’s critical mineral supply chain, enhance self-reliance, and foster innovation through domestic exploration, recycling, and international acquisitions. By promoting technological advancements, global collaborations, and sustainable practices, NCMM strengthens India’s position in the global critical minerals ecosystem, supporting economic growth and national security.

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The Government of India has approved the Mutual Credit Guarantee Scheme for MSMEs (MCGS-MSME) to strengthen the manufacturing sector.

About Mutual Credit Guarantee Scheme for MSMEs (MCGS-MSME)

• The scheme fulfills the 2024-25 Budget announcement and aims to boost MSME credit access for purchasing Plant & Machinery / Equipment.
• Loan Eligibility: MSMEs with a valid Udyam Registration Number are eligible.
• Maximum Loan Amount: Loans of up to ₹100 crore can be covered under the scheme.
• Project Cost: The total project cost can exceed ₹100 crore, but the minimum cost of equipment/machinery must be 75% of the project cost.
• Loan Tenure:
  • Loans up to ₹50 crore have a repayment period of up to 8 years, with a 2-year moratorium on principal installments.
  • For loans exceeding ₹50 crore, a longer repayment and moratorium period may be considered.
• Guarantee Coverage: The National Credit Guarantee Trustee Company Limited (NCGTC) will provide 60% guarantee coverage to Member Lending Institutions (MLIs).
• Upfront Contribution: Borrowers must deposit 5% of the loan amount at the time of applying for the guarantee cover.
• Annual Guarantee Fee:
  • Nil during the year of sanction.
  • 1.5% per annum on outstanding loan amounts for the next three years.
  • 1% per annum thereafter.
• Duration of the Scheme: Applicable for four years from the issuance of operational guidelines or until the cumulative guarantee reaches ₹7 lakh crore, whichever comes first.
• Eligible Member Lending Institutions (MLIs)
  • Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs)
  • Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)
  • All India Financial Institutions (AIFIs) registered with NCGTC under this scheme.

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Impact of the Scheme

• The manufacturing sector currently contributes 17% of India’s GDP and employs over 27.3 million workers.
• Aligns with the “Make in India, Make for the World” initiative to increase the manufacturing sector’s GDP share to 25%.
• Facilitates easier access to credit for MSMEs to purchase equipment/machinery, accelerating industrial expansion.
• Encourages collateral-free loans for MSMEs through banks and financial institutions.

Rationale behind the Scheme:

• Global supply chains are shifting, positioning India as a key alternative supply source due to its raw materials, low labor costs, and manufacturing expertise.
• One of the largest costs in manufacturing is Plant & Machinery (P&M) / Equipment. The scheme ensures that MSMEs can expand their installed capacity by securing affordable loans.
• Industry associations have consistently demanded a credit guarantee scheme for manufacturing units, particularly medium enterprises.
• The introduction of MCGS-MSME will facilitate credit availability, boost MSME growth, and strengthen India’s position in global manufacturing.

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A significant study conducted by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has identified nine key algal bloom hotspots along India’s east and west coasts.

Key Highlights of the Findings

• Key Algal Bloom Hotspot: Nine algal bloom hotspots have been identified along India’s east and west coasts:
  • West Coast: Goa, Mangaluru, Kozhikode, Kochi, and Vizhinjam Bay.
  • East Coast: Gopalpur, Kalpakkam, Palk Bay, and the Gulf of Mannar.

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• Geographic Patterns of the Algal Bloom:
  • The southern coast of India experiences a higher number of algal blooms compared to the northern coast  as southern India’s warmer sea temperatures and high humidity create an ideal environment for phytoplankton proliferation.
    • Industrial and agricultural runoff from coastal cities like Kochi, Kozhikode, and Mangaluru increases nutrient concentrations in coastal waters, encouraging algal bloom formation.
  • On the east coast, blooms occur primarily during the pre-southwest monsoon and at the onset of the northeast monsoon.
  • On the west coast, blooms are observed during and after the southwest monsoon.
• Phytoplankton Biomass Thresholds: Researchers have established region-specific phytoplankton biomass thresholds to identify and classify bloom phases.
• The classification includes four categories: ‘Likely to Bloom,’ ‘Bloom,’ ‘Intense Bloom,’ and ‘Extreme Bloom.’
• Causes of the Growing Algal Bloom Phenomenon Along India’s Coastline
  • Algal blooms result from a sudden surge in phytoplankton, including diatoms and cyanobacteria.
  • The frequency and intensity of these blooms are increasing due to environmental and anthropogenic factors.

About Algal Blooms

• Algal blooms refer to the exponential growth of phytoplankton in water bodies.
• These blooms occur when sunlight and nutrients are abundantly available, leading to rapid reproduction.
• The dense presence of phytoplankton alters the water’s color.
• Red Tide: A red tide is a harmful algal bloom caused by toxin-producing marine microorganisms, often dinoflagellates, discoloring water and harming marine life through oxygen depletion and toxin accumulation in the food chain.

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Causes of Algal Blooms

• Nutrient Flux: Increased nutrient availability due to monsoons and coastal upwelling (the rise of cooler, nutrient-rich water to the surface).
• Eutrophication: The excessive presence of nutrients supports the rapid growth of algae and cyanobacteria.
• Temperature: Algal blooms are more likely to occur in summer or fall but can happen at any time of the year.
• Turbidity: Turbidity, caused by suspended particles and organic matter in water, influences algal growth.
• • When turbidity is low, more light can penetrate the water column, facilitating photosynthesis and algal growth.

Ecological Impact of Algal Blooms

• Oxygen Depletion (Hypoxia): Algal blooms consume excessive oxygen during decomposition, creating dead zones where marine life cannot survive.
• Toxicity: Some harmful algal species produce neurotoxins and hepatotoxins, which poison fish, shellfish, and even humans through seafood consumption.
• Disruption of Food Chains: Blooms can outcompete beneficial phytoplankton, leading to imbalance in marine ecosystems and starvation of higher organisms.
• Economic Losses: Fisheries suffer due to fish kills, while tourism declines due to foul-smelling, discolored waters and beach closures.
• Coral Reef Damage: Certain algal blooms prevent penetration of sunlight leading to coral smothering and bleaching, weakening reef ecosystems that support diverse marine life.

Measures to Reduce Algal Blooms in Indian Coastal Waters

• Enhance Ocean Water Circulation: Use aeration techniques or artificial upwelling to prevent stagnant water conditions that favor algal blooms.
• Regulate Coastal Runoff: Implement rainwater harvesting and stormwater management to reduce nutrient-rich runoff from urban and agricultural areas.
• Control Industrial & Agricultural Discharge: Enforce stricter wastewater treatment policies to limit excess nitrogen and phosphorus entering coastal waters.
• Promote Sustainable Fishing & Aquaculture: Avoid overfeeding in aquaculture farms and ensure responsible waste disposal to minimize organic pollution.
• Restore Mangroves & Seagrass Beds: These ecosystems act as natural filters, absorbing excess nutrients and preventing bloom formation.
• Monitor & Predict Blooms: Use satellite-based remote sensing and bio-optical algorithms to track and mitigate bloom occurrences in real-time.
• Public Awareness & Policy Action: Educate coastal communities and industries on best practices to limit nutrient pollution and prevent HABs.

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National & Global Initiatives to Monitor Algal Blooms

• Global Initiative: UNESCO IOC HAB Programme
  • Helps member states research, predict, and mitigate harmful algal blooms (HABs).
  • Provides training in species identification, toxicity testing, and monitoring strategies.
• National Initiative: INCOIS Algal Bloom Information Service (AIS)
  • Developed to detect and monitor algal blooms in Indian seas, benefiting fishermen, researchers, and marine resource managers.
  • Uses satellite data to provide near real-time information on bloom hotspots, sea surface temperature anomalies, and chlorophyll concentration in key regions like the Arabian Sea, Kerala Coast, Gulf of Mannar, and Gopalpur waters.

About Phytoplankton

• Phytoplankton are microscopic floating plants found in aquatic ecosystems.
• The biomass of phytoplankton is analyzed by measuring chlorophyll-a content.

Chlorophyll and Its Types

• Chlorophyll is the major pigment used by plants for photosynthesis, a process where light energy is converted into chemical energy through organic compound synthesis.
• There are four types of chlorophyll:
  1. Chlorophyll-a: Found in all higher plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
  2. Chlorophyll-b: Found in higher plants and green algae.
  3. Chlorophyll-c: Present in diatoms, dinoflagellates, and brown algae.
  4. Chlorophyll-d: Found exclusively in red algae.

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Significance of Phytoplankton

• Phytoplankton contribute to over half of the atmospheric oxygen.
• They play a crucial role in reducing global warming by absorbing human-induced carbon dioxide.
• They serve as the foundation of the oceanic food chain.
• Their abundance acts as a bioindicator for assessing ocean health and ecosystem stability.

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Denmark has announced a €2 billion investment to strengthen its military presence in the Arctic and North Atlantic region.

Key Highlights of Denmark Initiative

• The move comes amid repeated statements by the U.S. President Donald Trump about acquiring Greenland, despite Denmark’s firm rejection
• Military Expansion: Denmark plans to enhance Arctic security with:
  • Three new Arctic naval vessels.
  • Two additional long-range surveillance drones.
  • Improved satellite capacity.
• Diplomatic Engagement:
  • PM of Denmark Frederiksen is set to meet NATO allies to reinforce unity on Greenland’s sovereignty.
  • Denmark has emphasized the need for European unity on security and sovereignty issues.
  • Germany has indirectly criticized Trump’s stance, stating that borders should not be altered by force.

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About the Arctic Circle

• Countries with Arctic Territory: Eight countries have sovereignty over parts of the Arctic: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States (Alaska).
• Vegetation: The region is characterized by tundra vegetation, with low shrubs, mosses, and lichens due to extreme cold and permafrost.
• Significance:
  • Rich in natural resources such as oil, gas, and minerals.
  • Key for global shipping routes due to melting ice, opening the Northern Sea Route.
  • Crucial for climate studies as Arctic ice influences global weather patterns.

Climate Change Challenges in the Arctic

• Rising Temperatures: The Arctic is warming nearly four times faster than the global average, leading to ice melting and habitat loss.
• Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers contribute to global sea-level rise, threatening coastal communities worldwide.
• Biodiversity Loss: Wildlife such as polar bears and Arctic foxes face survival threats due to habitat shrinkage.
• Geopolitical Tensions: Increased accessibility to Arctic resources has led to territorial disputes and military activities.

International Organizations for the Arctic

• Arctic Council: A key intergovernmental forum comprising Arctic states, Indigenous groups, and observers, focused on sustainable development and environmental protection.
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): Governs maritime rights and territorial claims in the Arctic Ocean.
• NATO’s Arctic Strategy: Addresses security concerns and military coordination among Arctic member states.
• International Maritime Organization (IMO): Regulates Arctic shipping through the Polar Code, ensuring environmental and safety standards.

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Conclusion

Denmark’s Arctic defense initiative signals its commitment to regional security while responding to growing geopolitical challenges.

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A joint committee constituted by the National Green Tribunal (NGT) has found that the Ghaggar River water contained from two to three times the prescribed limit of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), making it unfit for outdoor bathing.

Water Quality Issues in Ghaggar River

BOD Levels

• Current Status: pH levels in the Ghaggar River meet bathing standards, but BOD levels fail to comply with bathing water standards.
• Implication: High BOD levels suggest the presence of excessive organic pollutants, such as untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, or industrial effluents.
  • This leads to a depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO), making the water unsuitable for aquatic life and recreational activities like bathing.

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Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

• Definition: TSS refers to the amount of solid particles (e.g., silt, organic matter, algae, and industrial waste) suspended in water.
• Current Status: TSS levels in the Ghaggar River exceed environmental discharge limits.
• Impact: High TSS blocks sunlight, reduces photosynthesis, and harms aquatic life.
• Sources: Sources of TSS include soil erosion, untreated industrial discharges, and urban runoff.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

• Definition: DO measures the amount of free oxygen available in river systems.
• Factors affecting DO in the Ghaggar River:
  • Surface turbulence: Limited due to slow flow or stagnation.
  • Photosynthetic activity: Reduced due to high TSS blocking sunlight.
  • O2 consumption: Increased by bacteria decomposing organic waste.
  • Decomposition of organic matter: High BOD indicates significant organic waste, further depleting DO.
• Impact of Low DO: Low DO levels make the river uninhabitable for fish and other aquatic life, leading to ecological imbalance.
  • Presence of organic and inorganic wastes decreases DO levels, leading to poor water quality and threatening aquatic life.

About Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

• Definition: BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen required by bacteria to decompose organic wastes in water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water.
• Importance of BOD:
  • Indicates Water Pollution: High BOD suggests more organic pollutants, leading to poor water quality.
  • Measures Oxygen Depletion: Excessive oxygen consumption by bacteria reduces DO, harming aquatic life.
  • Wastewater Treatment: BOD is used to assess the efficiency of sewage treatment plants (STPs) and effluent treatment plants (ETPs).
• Causes of High BOD in Water Bodies
  • Discharge of untreated sewage (domestic wastewater).
  • Industrial effluents containing organic waste.
  • Agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers, animal waste).
  • Decaying plant material and dead aquatic organisms.
  • Slum settlements dumping waste directly into water.
• Consequences of High BOD
  • Oxygen depletion in water, leading to fish and aquatic life mortality.
  • Bad odor and water discoloration.
  • Algal blooms due to excess nutrients.
  • Spread of waterborne diseases.

About Ghaggar River

• Nature: Intermittent river that flows only during the monsoon season.
• Course: Originates in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through Haryana and Rajasthan before drying up in the Thar Desert.
• Irrigation: Feeds two irrigation canals extending into Rajasthan.
• Connection to Hakra River: The Hakra River in Pakistan is considered the continuation of the Ghaggar River in India. 
  • Together, they are called the Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• Main Tributaries: Kaushalya River, Markanda, Sarsuti, Tangri, and Chautang.
• Historical Significance: Many Indus Valley Civilization settlements have been excavated along its banks. Key archaeological sites:
  • Kalibangan: Located on the Ghaggar River in Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan.
  • Rakhigarhi: Located in Hisar district, Haryana, in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain.
  • Banawali: Located on the dry bed of the Sarasvati River in Fatehabad district, Haryana.
• Cultural Significance: The Ghaggar River is believed to be the lost Sarasvati River mentioned in the Rigveda.

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Recently, the Supreme Court declared domicile-based reservations for postgraduate (PG) medical courses within the state quota unconstitutional, stating that it violates the right to equality under Article 14 of the Constitution

• The judgment came in response to appeals against a Punjab and Haryana High Court ruling in Tanvi Behl v. Shrey Goel and others (2025) case that had scrapped such domicile-based reservations in PG medical admissions.

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Key Highlights of the Judgment

• Violation of Right to Equality (Article 14): The Court held that domicile-based reservation in PG medical courses violates Article 14 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Equality.
  • Such reservations treat students from other states unequally, denying them equal opportunities.
• Permissibility in MBBS vs. PG Courses: The Court clarified that while domicile-based reservation may be permissible to a certain degree in MBBS courses, it is impermissible in PG medical courses.
  • PG courses require highly specialized doctors, and reservations based on domicile would compromise merit and quality.
• Common Domicile of India: The Court emphasized that all Indians have only one domicile, i.e., the Domicile of India (as per Article 5).
  • The concept of State or provincial domicile is a misconception in India.
• Merit-Based Admissions: The Court ruled that State quota seats (50% of total PG seats) must be filled strictly on the basis of merit in the all-India examination.
  • Only a reasonable number of institution-based reservations can be allowed.
• No Impact on Past Admissions: The judgment will not affect admissions already granted based on domicile-based reservations.

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Reasons for the Judgment

• Specialized Nature of PG Courses: PG medical courses require highly skilled professionals, and reservations based on domicile would compromise merit and quality.
• Violation of Fundamental Rights: Domicile-based reservations infringe on the fundamental rights of students from other states, denying them equality in educational opportunities.
• Precedent from Dr. Pradeep Jain vs Union of India (1984): The Supreme Court had previously held that residence-based reservations in PG medical courses are violative of Article 14.
  • However, some reservation in MBBS courses is permissible due to:
    • State expenditure on infrastructure and medical colleges.
    • Consideration of local needs and backwardness of the area.

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The study, ‘Abrupt transformation of west Greenland lakes following compound climate extremes associated with atmospheric rivers’ revealed that more than 7,500 lakes in western Greenland have turned brown.

Transformation of the Lakes

• In 2022, extreme weather events caused these lakes to turn brown, emit carbon, and suffer a decline in water quality.
• Such changes typically occur over centuries, but in this case, they happened within months.

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Causes of the Transformation

• Warmer Temperatures: Greenland usually experiences snowfall during the fall season (late August to late September).
  • In 2022, warmer temperatures caused the snow to turn into rain.
• Permafrost Thawing: Permafrost (frozen ground containing organic carbon) thawed due to the heat.
  • This released carbon, iron, magnesium, and other elements into the environment.
• Record Rainfall: Heavy rainfall washed these elements into the lakes, altering their physical, chemical, and biological properties.
• Role of Atmospheric Rivers: Atmospheric rivers are narrow regions in the atmosphere that transport water vapor.
  • They brought unprecedented heat and rainfall to Greenland in 2022.
  • Climate models predict atmospheric rivers will become 50–290% more frequent by the end of the 21st century in regions like Greenland, western North America, and east Asia.

Impacts of the Transformation

• Carbon Emissions: The lakes shifted from being carbon sinks to significant sources of carbon dioxide, with emissions rising by 350%.
• Water Quality: The water quality deteriorated, affecting its color, odor, and taste.
  • Increased dissolved organic material can produce carcinogenic byproducts during water treatment.
• Biodiversity Loss: Reduced light penetration hindered phytoplankton photosynthesis, decreasing their ability to absorb CO₂.
  • This had significant ramifications for the region’s carbon cycle and overall ecosystem health.

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About Greenland

• Greenland: It is the world’s largest island, lying in the North Atlantic Ocean. 
  • The Greenlandic people call their homeland Kalaallit Nunaat (“Country of the Greenlanders”)
• Capital: Nuuk
• Highest Point: Gunnbjorn’s Fjeld 
• Location: It is located in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northeastern coast of Canada, bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the west by Smith Sound, Baffin Bay and the Davis Strait; and on the east by the Arctic and North Atlantic oceans. 
  • It is the world’s largest (non-continent) island.
  • It shares its maritime borders with Canada, Iceland and Norway.
  • It is positioned both in the Northern and Western hemispheres of the Earth.
• Physical Feature: It is noted for its vast tundra and immense glaciers. 
  • One of the largest glaciers is the Peterman.
• Greenland’s major physical feature is its massive ice sheet, which is second only to Antarctica’s in size and covers over four-fifths of Greenland’s total land area. 
  • In Greenland, the sun does not set from May 25 to July 25 and July is the only month when the temperature reaches above freezing.
• Greenland Sea: It is an outlying portion of the Arctic Ocean, which lies south of the Arctic Basin proper and borders Greenland (west), Svalbard (east), the main Arctic Ocean (north), and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland (south).
• National Park: Northeast Greenland National Park is the world’s largest national park.

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The Reserve Bank has tightened rules for imposing monetary penalties and compounding offences under the Payment and Settlement Systems Act (PSS Act) in a revised Framework.

About the Revised Framework

• Aim: To streamline enforcement actions, ensuring compliance and accountability among payment system operators and banks.
• Only material contraventions will be taken up for enforcement action in the form of imposition of monetary penalty or compounding of offences.
• Monetary Penalty: The framework provides procedures for imposing monetary penalties and determining the amount of penalty.
  • The RBI can impose a penalty not exceeding Rs 10 lakh or twice the amount involved in whichever is more, in case of contraventions/defaults. 
    • The penalty amount was raised from a maximum of Rs 5 lakh following the enactment of the Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act, 2023, entering into force on January 22, 2024.
  • The quantum of penalty is determined based on proportionality, financial impact, and intent behind the contravention.
• Repeat offence Penalty: In cases where such contravention or default continues,  a further penalty of up to Rs 25,000/ day after the first, will be levied.
• Compounding of Offence: The PSS Act under Section 31, empowers  an RBI officer duly authorised to compound contraventions, excluding offences punishable with imprisonment.
  • Offences: Offences such as unauthorized disclosures, failure to submit documents, and non-compliance with regulatory directives attract compounding proceeding.
  • Compounding allows violators to settle regulatory breaches without undergoing prolonged legal proceedings.

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Offences Under the PSS Act, 2007

• Section 26 of the Payment and Settlement Systems (PSS) Act, 2007 deals with penalties that are warranted for violations of the Act affecting the integrity and security of India’s financial ecosystem,
  • Unauthorised Operation: Operating a payment system without authorization or failing to comply with authorization conditions.
  • False Information: Providing false statements or omitting crucial information in applications or returns.
  • Non Disclosure: Failing to submit required statements, information, or documents to the RBI.
  • Compromised on Information Security: Unauthorized disclosure of prohibited information.
  • Disobeyance: Non-compliance with RBI directions, including failure to pay imposed penalties.
  • Violations related to data storage, KYC/AML norms, and escrow account maintenance.

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A study by researchers from Cochin University of Science and Technology (Cusat), EUMETSAT, and the UK Met Office found that extreme rainfall events on India’s southwest coast have been steadily increasing.

• The rate of increase is 0.23 mm per season.
• The research analyzed monsoon rainfall data from 1990 to 2023 on India’s west coast.
• It examined observational records, reanalysis data, and sea surface temperature (SST) trends.
• The study focused on how moisture flux (movement of moisture in the atmosphere) affects rainfall patterns.

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Key findings of the study

• Cause of Extreme Rainfall: 
  • This trend is linked to rising sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the southeast Arabian Sea, which enhance moisture transport to the region.
    • Since 2014, SSTs in this region have remained above 28°C, leading to more moisture in the air and heavier rainfall.
    • The southwest coast (especially Kerala) is highly vulnerable to these changes.
  • Northwest Coast Difference: The northwest coast has not seen similar extreme rainfall spikes but reports increased average monsoon rainfall due to stronger wind-driven moisture flow.
• Arabian Sea Warming Faster than Bay of Bengal
• • The study found that the Arabian Sea is warming faster than the Bay of Bengal.
    • Since 2006, there has been a strong connection between SST and moisture transport.
  • Before 2006, the correlation between SST and moisture flux was negative, but it strengthened to 0.71 between 2007 and 2023.

What is sea surface temperatures (SST)?

• SST refers to the temperature of the ocean’s surface layer (measured in oceans, seas, and large lakes).
• It is a key factor in studying weather, climate change, and marine life.
• Significance of SSTs 
  • Impact on Weather and Climate
    • Storms and Cyclones: Warmer SSTs provide energy for stronger storms, hurricanes, and monsoons.
    • Monsoon Patterns: SSTs influence rainfall distribution, especially in regions like India.
  • Climate Change Indicator
    • • Rising SSTs signal global warming, as oceans absorb most of the Earth’s excess heat.
  • Marine Ecosystems
    • Coral Bleaching: High SSTs stress coral reefs, leading to bleaching.
    • Fish Behavior: Changes in SST affect fish migration, breeding, and survival.
• How is SST measured?
  • Satellite Technology: Primary Method: Satellites provide global, real-time data on ocean temperatures.
  • Direct Tools
    • Buoys and Ships: Collect localized, precise measurements.
    • Drones and Sensors: Modern tools enhance data accuracy.
• How Is SST Data Used?
  • Weather Forecasting
    • Predicts storms, cyclones, and rainfall patterns.
    • Helps issue early warnings for extreme weather events.
  • Climate Research
    • Tracks long-term warming trends and ocean health.
    • Studies links between SST rise and climate change impacts.
  • Fishing and Marine Industries
    • Guides fishermen to fish-rich zones based on temperature changes.
    • Helps aquaculture industries manage fish farming.

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Leprosy Transmission

Context: Central government approved a new three-drug regimen for Pauci-Bacillary (PB) cases instead of a two-drug regimen for six months to stop transmission by 2027.

About Leprosy

• Caused by Mycobacterium leprae and mainly affects the skin and peripheral nerves.
• Symptoms for diagnosis:
  • Pale or reddish skin patches with loss of sensation.
  • Thickened or enlarged nerves, leading to muscle weakness.
  • Microscopic detection of bacteria in skin smears.
• Types of Leprosy Cases:
  • Paucibacillary (PB) – Fewer bacteria, milder form.
  • Multibacillary (MB) – More bacteria, severe form.
• Transmission and Treatment
  • Spreads through droplets from the nose and mouth during close contact with untreated patients.
  • Curable with Multidrug Therapy (MDT).
• High-leprosy Prevalence States: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Odisha. 
• India’s Global Leprosy Burden: India accounts for 52% of the world’s new leprosy cases.

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India’s Progress in Leprosy Elimination

• India achieved the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem in 2005.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) defines elimination as having fewer than 1 case per 10,000 people at the national level.
• Initiatives taken 
  • National Strategic Plan (NSP) and Roadmap (2023-27)
    • Launched on January 30, 2023, to eliminate transmission by 2027 (three years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goal).
    • Key focus areas:
      • Raising awareness to eliminate stigma and discrimination.
      • Promoting early detection of cases.
      • Preventing transmission through post-exposure prophylaxis.
      • Implementing Nikusth 2.0, a web-based portal for leprosy case reporting.
  • National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP) Initiatives
    • Focuses on early detection to prevent disabilities (Grade 2 Disabilities).
    • Provides free treatment for leprosy patients.

INSV Tarini crosses Point Nemo

Context: Recently, INSV Tarini successfully passed Point Nemo, the most remote location on Earth.

About INSV Tarini

• INSV Tarini is a 56-foot sailing vessel built by Aquarius Shipyard Ltd.
• It is named after the Tara Tarini temple.
• It was inducted into the Indian Navy on February 18, 2017.
• Features
  • INSV Tarini includes advanced features such as:
    • Satellite communication systems.
    • Raymarine navigation suite.
    • Monitor windvane for emergency steering.

INSV Tarini’s Journey So Far

• INSV Tarini left Lyttelton Port, New Zealand, in early January for its third leg.
  • This leg is the longest of the expedition, covering 5,600 nautical miles (10,400 km).
    • The expedition was flagged off from Goa on October 2, 2024. 

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About Point Nemo

• Point Nemo is an isolated area in the South Pacific Ocean, covering a space 34 times larger than France.
  • It is also known as the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility.
• Due to its remoteness and weak ocean currents, it has very few nutrients, making it difficult for marine life to thrive.
  • Larger and more developed marine species are almost absent in this region.
• The nearest humans to Point Nemo are not on boats but in the International Space Station (ISS), flying about 400 km above it.
  • Space agencies use Point Nemo as a “spacecraft graveyard”, where decommissioned satellites and space stations are directed to crash safely.

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