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India ranks sixth among the world’s nuclear-armed states, possessing 172 nuclear weapons.

• Nine nuclear-armed nations, including the US, Russia, France, China, India, and Pakistan, continued to modernise their nuclear arsenals in 2023.
• Russia and the USA collectively possess nearly 90% of the world’s nuclear weapons.

India’s nuclear arsenal surpasses Pakistan while China boosts nuclear stockpile, SIPRI Report

• Global Nuclear Warhead Inventory and Deployment Status: The global inventory comprises approximately 12,121 nuclear warheads, with about 9,585 in military stockpiles. 
  • Of these, around 3,904 are deployed on missiles and aircraft, an increase of 60 since January 2023.
• Operational Alert Status of Deployed Nuclear Warheads: Around 2,100 of the deployed warheads are on high operational alert, primarily held by Russia and the USA, with China believed to have joined this category for the first time.
• India: 
  • Pakistan continues to be the primary focus of India’s nuclear deterrent.
  • However,  there is a shift towards prioritising longer-range weapons capable of targeting locations across China.
  • India’s nuclear arsenal has seen a slight expansion, growing from 164 warheads in January 2023 to 172 warheads by January 2024, placing it 6th among the world’s nuclear-armed states. 
  • India’s “stored” nuclear warheads were 172 in January this year, while the number for Pakistan was 170.
• Pakistan: Pakistan has recorded no increase in the number of warheads which stood at 170 both in January 2023 and 2024.
• China: China is expanding its nuclear arsenal faster than any other country.
  • Its nuclear arsenal has increased significantly from 410 warheads in January 2023 to 500 by January 2024, with expectations of continued growth.
• United Kingdom: The UK plans to expand its warhead stockpile following a government decision in 2021 to increase the limit from 225 to 260 warheads. 
  • Additionally, the government has ceased public disclosure of its nuclear arsenal details, including quantities of weapons, deployed warheads, and missiles.
• France: In 2023, new nuclear systems were developed, including a third-generation nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine and an air-launched cruise missile.
• North Korea:  North Korea continues to prioritise its military nuclear program as a crucial component of its national security strategy. 
  • SIPRI estimates the country has around 50 warheads and sufficient fissile material to potentially expand its arsenal to up to 90 warheads.
• Israel: It is not officially acknowledging its nuclear weapons. However,  reportedly Israel is modernising its nuclear arsenal and enhancing plutonium production capabilities at Dimona.
• Weakening nuclear diplomacy amid war in Ukraine and Gaza: According to SIPRI, nuclear arms control and disarmament diplomacy suffered more major setbacks in 2023. Examples-
  • Russia:
    • Suspended participation in the New START treaty in February 2023.
    • Withdrew ratification of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).
    • Conducted tactical nuclear weapon drills near Ukraine’s border in May 2024.
  • USA:
    • Halted sharing and publishing treaty data in response to Russia’s suspension of its participation in the 2010 New START treaty.
  • Iran:
    • Supported Russia during the Ukraine conflict, leading to tensions with the USA.
  • Israel and Hamas Conflict:
    • The beginning of the Israel-Hamas conflict in October disrupted the agreement, as proxy attacks by Iran-backed groups on US forces in Iraq and Syria appeared to halt Iranian–US diplomatic efforts
    • The conflict hindered efforts to involve Israel in the Conference on the Establishment of a Middle East Zone Free of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction

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Recently, The Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) highlighted the need for a National Security Strategy (NSS) in India. 

CDS Calls for Debate on Formalizing India’s National Security Strategy

• The Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) highlighted components of National Security Strategy (NSS): Policy, Processes, and Practices.
• He acknowledged that India addresses policy, processes, and practices effectively.
• However, the absence of a formal written policy is a notable gap in the National Security Strategy.
• He questioned the necessity of a written policy and cited the example of Israel which operates without a written national security strategy document.
• This reignites analysis and debates of whether India really needs a written policy for its national security strategy. 

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About National Security Strategy (NSS)

• NSS is a document that lays down the security objectives of a country, defines its internal and external challenges and provides guidance on how to achieve those objectives
• An NSS should address both traditional and non-traditional threats , assess potential threats, allocate resources, and outline diplomatic, military, intelligence, as well as  defence policies.
• Example- The United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia, China and Pakistan have  a Comprehensive National Security strategy,

Need for a National Security Strategy (NSS)

• Enhancing Operational Effectiveness: The National Security Strategy (NSS) should define clear objectives (ends), strategies (ways), and resources (means) while promoting delegation, synergy, and operational autonomy.
  • It aims to encourage initiative, innovation, and improvisation at the frontline level.
• Crucial for effective theatre commands: The NSS is crucial for the establishment and effectiveness of theatre commands and overall military transformation.
  • A well-defined NSS is expected to inspire bold and capable military leaders like Field Marshal ‘Sam’ Manekshaw, Lt Gen Harbaksh Singh, and Lt Gen Sagat Singh.
• Promotes ‘Whole of Nation Approach’: A well-crafted National Security Strategy (NSS) is needed for promoting a “whole of nation” approach and synergizing comprehensive national power (CNP).
• Facilitate capacity building: It would also enable the setting of milestones for capability-building for modernisation, infrastructure and the Atma Nirbhar mission.
• Concerns over the current status of defence planning:  Currently, there is a discontinuation of Defence Plans (five years) and Long Term Perspective Plans (15 years).
  • Introduction of new formats like the Integrated Capability Plan (10 years) and Defence Capability Acquisition Plan (5 years), are still in the stabilisation phase.
  • Parliamentary reviews and audits by the Auditor General are seen as not fully effective.There’s a need to improve these reviews with better tools for checking and predicting goals.
• Build Accountability: The National Security Strategy (NSS) could help outside experts check and improve government plans. 
  • The NSS, as a reference for peer review by think tanks, will reduce ambiguity and build meaningful accountability.
  • It would make national security planning clearer and more accountable.

Issues and Concerns Surrounding India’s National Security Strategy

• Prolonged Drafting of Multiple Versions of NSS: Prolonged engagement in drafting multiple versions of the National Security Strategy (NSS) over the past two decades raises questions about its purpose and effectiveness.
• Establishment of Defence Planning Committee: Establishment of an apex-level Defence Planning Committee chaired by the National Security Advisor in 2018 aimed at formulating the NSS and National Defence Strategy. However, not much progress has been achieved.
• Transparency Issues: Lack of transparency regarding the status and progress of this significant exercise despite its public announcement.
• Current Challenges with Operational Directive: Current reliance on the cryptic and inadequate Operational Directive of the Defence Minister, underscores the need for a comprehensive NSS.
• Concerns about unclear Strategic guidance: There are concerns about Army Commanders’ lack of substantive handover procedures which are often brief and ceremonial.

• • Example- During the Doklam crisis, the strategic guidance was unclear.
  • The system suffers from over-centralisation and, in the long term, needs to be replaced by a de-centralised Directive Style of Command (DSOC).
• Divergence in Opinions: The Ministry of Defence and other government agencies may hold differing opinions on a formal NSS.
• Changing Threat Landscape: Adapting the NSS to address evolving and advanced security threats, such as cyber threats, terrorism, and non-traditional security challenges, is a continuous challenge.

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Way Forward

India urgently needs a customised approach to tackle its unique security challenges effectively. Clarifying and resolving issues surrounding the National Security Strategy (NSS) is crucial for enhancing strategic clarity and operational readiness in safeguarding national interests.

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17th June 2024  marks 30 years of the adoption of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), now observed as the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought.

World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought 2024

• Adoption: The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was adopted on June 17, 1994, in Paris.
  • 2024 will mark the 30th anniversary to the adoption of the convention

The Event of 2024

The Event will be held in the UNCCD Secretariat at Bonn, Germany 

• The UN call: The United Nations urged support from all generations for sustainable land stewardship  ahead of the 16th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the UNCCD in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
• Theme: “United for Land: Our Legacy. Our Future”
• Land Heroes: The Bonn event felicitated 10 youngsters as ‘Land Heroes’ who have worked to restore land, boost resilience to drought, develop sustainable agricultural businesses, and harness technology and innovation to tackle global environmental challenges worldwide.

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Land degradation

• Definition: As per the UNCCD, ‘Land Degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or arising from human activities and habitation patterns”.
• Components of Land Degradation:
  • Soil degradation: Decline in the productive capacity of the soil as a result of soil erosion and changes in the hydrological, biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil.
  • Vegetation degradation: Decline in the quantity and/or quality of the natural biomass and decrease in the vegetative ground cover.
  • Water degradation: Decline in the quantity and/or quality of both surface and ground water resources.
  • Climate deterioration: Changes in the micro- and macro-climatic conditions that increase the risk of crop failure.
  • Losses to urban/industrial development: Decline in the total area of land used, or with potential, for agricultural production as a result of arable land being converted to urban, industrial and infrastructure uses.
• Need to halt Land Degradation:
  • Extent of Land Degradation: Up to 40 per cent of the world’s land and nearly half the world’s population are affected by land degradation, losing the equivalent of four football fields to land degradation every second (a total of 100 million hectares every year)
  • Affected Communities: Land Degradation and its negative impacts are borne mostly by the marginalised communities like the  indigenous communities, rural households, smallholder farmers, and especially youth and women.
    • Around a quarter of the world’s population is affected by drought.
  • Dependency: Over 1 billion young people living in developing countries depend on land and natural resources and by 2050, the number will increase to 10 billion people 
  • Economic and sustainability opportunities: Engaging the youth to restore land could create an estimated 600 million jobs needed in the next 15 years which will in turn, contribute to both economic growth and environmental sustainability.
• Land Degradation in India:
  • The extent of  land degradation and desertification in the country has been estimated to be 97.84 million hectares in 2018-19 as per the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India, published by Space Applications Centre (SAC) Indian Space Research Organisation, Ahmedabad.
• Government Measures:
  • Observation: An online portal has been developed with the help of Space Application Center(SAC), Ahmedabad for visualization of degraded area of land with the processes causing degradation.
  • South – South collaboration: A Centre of Excellence has been envisaged at the Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) Dehradun for enhanced South-South Cooperation. It aims at knowledge sharing, promotion of best practices, sharing of India’s experiences with cost-effective and sustainable land management strategies, developing ideas for transformative projects and programs and capacity building.
  • Bonn Challenge: At the UNFCCC COP, 2015 in Paris, India joined the voluntary Bonn Challenge and pledged to restore 13 million hectares (mha) of degraded and deforested land by the year 2020, and an additional 8 mha by 2030.
    • This pledge to restore  21 m.ha by 2030 has been increased to 26 mha, during the COP14 to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 2019.
  • Rehabilitation of Coastal habitat: The Rehabilitation of Coastal habitat through the formation of bio shield is being implemented for three years (2023-24 to 2025-26) by the state of Tamil Nadu  in all its coastal districts.

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The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) acknowledged the deaths of  Indian nationals who were recruited by the Russian Army during the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

MEA Urges Return of Indians Recruited by Russian Army Amid Rising Trafficking Concerns

• MEA’s Response: The Indian Embassy in Moscow raised the issue with the Russian Ambassador in New Delhi and Russian authorities, urging the swift return of all Indian nationals serving in the Russian Army.
• Disturbing Trend: These deaths highlight the issue of Indians being trafficked into international armed conflicts due to lack of domestic employment opportunities.

About Mercenaries

• They are also known as merc, soldier of fortune, or hired gun.
• It is a private individual who participates in armed conflict for personal profit.

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Criteria for Mercenaries (Article 47, Additional Protocol I, Geneva Conventions)

• Special Recruitment: Recruited locally or abroad specifically to fight in a conflict.
• Direct Participation: Actively involved in hostilities.

• Motivation for Gain: Driven by the desire for private gain and promised significant compensation, much higher than that of regular combatants.
• Third-party Nationality: Not a national or resident of a party to the conflict.
• Non-Member of Armed Forces: Not part of the armed forces of a conflict party.
• No Official Duty: Not sent by a non-conflict state on official duty.

Legal Status and Treatment of Mercenaries

• No Crime by Definition: Being a mercenary is not a specific crime under customary international humanitarian law (IHL).
• No Prisoner-of-War Status: Captured mercenaries do not receive prisoner-of-war status or protections under the Geneva Conventions.

• Prosecution: They can be prosecuted for war crimes or other serious violations of humanitarian law and face domestic charges in the detaining country.
• Humane Treatment: They are entitled to humane treatment according to fundamental humanitarian law guarantees (Article 75, Additional Protocol I).

Limitations of the Existing Regime

• Lack of Clear Definition

  • Ambiguity: The current regulatory regime lacks a clear and comprehensive legal definition of a mercenary.
  • Domestic Laws: Most countries do not criminalize mercenary activities within their domestic laws.

• Incomplete Definitions

  • Article 47, API: The definition does not cover foreign military personnel integrated into another state’s armed forces, such as the Gurkhas in the British Army.

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• • Accountability: The definition also fails to address accountability for foreigners working as advisors and trainers. Emergence of Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs)Increasing Role: PMSCs are taking over roles traditionally associated with mercenaries.
  • Services Provided: These companies offer a range of services from combat to logistical support like food supplies for troops.
  • Regulatory Gaps: The legal framework for PMSCs is loosely defined and depends heavily on a country’s domestic laws.

Regulatory Efforts and Challenges

• Montreux Doctrine: The Montreux Doctrine requires signatories to enhance oversight of PMSCs, ensuring they adhere to international humanitarian and human rights laws.

• Non-Signatories: India and Russia: Neither India nor Russia has signed the Montreux Doctrine.
• Potential Actions by India : Despite not being a signatory, India can enforce more stringent rules on how its nationals are recruited by PMSCs.
• International Legal Frameworks: There is a critical need for stronger international laws to protect individuals who may be coerced or deceived into working for PMSCs.

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The Way Forward

• Policy Framework: The Indian government should create a strong policy to address distress migration and human trafficking.
  • Two-Pronged Approach:
    • Long-term Measures: Focus on addressing economic issues that cause people to leave the country.
    • Immediate Measures: Educate the public and ensure thorough pre-travel vetting for Indians going to conflict zones like Russia.
• Specific Measures
  • Pre-Travel Approval:
    • MEA Approval: Require pre-travel approval from the Ministry of External Affairs for travel to Russia.
    • Human Trafficking Check: This approval process can help identify suspicious cases of human trafficking.
    • Company Identification: Helps in identifying companies exploiting Indian nationals.

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A recent study published in the Journal Nature suggests that Earth’s inner core began slowing its rotation in 2010, potentially altering the length of a day by fractions of a second.

Earth’s Inner Core is Slowing Down: Latest Study

• Research Conduction: Researchers from the University of Southern California analyzed seismic data and nuclear tests and provided “unambiguous evidence” of this slowdown, sparking debate on core dynamics and Earth’s rotation.
• Data Used for Latest Study: The researchers looked at seismic data recorded from 121 repeating earthquakes – multiple quakes occurring in the same location – between 1991 and 2023 in the South Sandwich Islands, a remote archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean. 
  • • The islands are prone to violent earthquakes.
  • Data from twin Soviet nuclear tests between 1971 and 1974, along with multiple French and American nuclear tests from other studies of the inner core, were also included in the analysis.
• Crucial Finding: It is considered that the inner core is reversing and backtracking relative to the surface, because of rotating slower than the mantle for the first time in about 40 years.
• Reason for Slowing Down: They observed a slowdown starting around 2010, possibly influenced by the surrounding liquid outer core’s movements generating Earth’s magnetic field or gravitational forces and the gravitational pulls from dense regions in the overlying rocky mantle.

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Implications of Earth’s Inner Core is Slowing Down

• Impact on Length of the Day: It could change the length of one day on the Earth by fractions of a second.
• Influence on Geological Processes: The inner core’s rotation is crucial in generating Earth’s magnetic field, which shields the planet from harmful solar radiation and influences geological processes.
  • Therefore, any changes in the inner core’s rotational speed could potentially impact Earth’s magnetic properties, possibly affecting geomagnetic events and natural conditions on the planet’s surface.
  • So far there is little to indicate that what the inner core does has much effect on surface dwellers.
• A New Avenue: The study not only resolves a long-standing scientific debate but also opens up new avenues for understanding the intricate dynamics of our planet’s interior, with potential implications for Earth’s magnetic field and rotational patterns.

Layers of the Earth

• Four Main Layers: 
  • The solid inner core, composed of iron and nickel
  • The liquid outer core, which generates the magnetic field
  • The viscous mantle, with convection currents driving plate tectonics
  • The thin, solid crust, where life exists and geological activity occurs

About Earth Inner Core

• Position: The inner core of Earth, a solid iron-nickel sphere surrounded by the liquid outer core, is roughly the size of the moon and lies over 4,500 kilometers beneath our feet. 
• Observation: While it cannot be directly observed, researchers can study its behavior by analysing seismic waves generated by earthquakes and nuclear tests.
• Rotation: The inner core rotates, relative to the Earth’s surface, back and forth, like a swing.
  • One cycle of the swing is about seven decades.
• Variations Observed in Rotation:
  • In Early 1970s: The inner core started rotating slightly faster than the rest of the planet.
  • Around 2009: The inner core had been slowing down before coming in sync with Earth’s rotation.
  • Afterwards: There has been a “negative trend” since, meaning the inner core is now rotating slower than the surface.
    • The researchers predicted the next change would occur in the mid-2040s.
    • Researchers said this rotation timeline roughly lines up with changes in what is called the “length of day”— small variations in the exact time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.

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The 67th Council Meet of Global Environment Facility being convened in Washington, DC.

Key Highlights of 67th Council Meet of Global Environment Facility

• Amount Allocation: An amount of $736.4 million will be allocated towards environment protection at this Global Environment Facility (GEF) council meeting.
  • The councils of the GEF Trust Fund, Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF), and Least Developed Countries Fund and Special Climate Change Fund (LDCF/SCCF) will consider $495.6 million, $37.8 million and $203 million respectively.
    • The LDCF and SCCF governing body is funding for 14 climate adaptation initiatives. 
    • The LDCF work program will support projects related to climate resilience and adaptation in Angola, Cambodia, Chad, the Comoros, the Gambia, Guinea, Lao PDR, Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone, Somalia, and Tanzania.
• Projects: Over the four-day meeting, the GEF will consider projects that protect biodiversity, counter climate change and pollution, and support land and ocean health.
• Consideration: The GEF Trust Fund will take decisions on projects under the GEF-8 funding cycle running from July 2022 to June 2026. 
  • These include:
    • Work on 28 million hectares of land and marine areas in the Sahel region and Yemen.
    • Initiatives include land restoration through the Great Green Wall project in Africa.
    • The improved management and conservation of wetlands in Yemen’s Socotra archipelago and Aden wetlands.
    • An initiative to conserve terrestrial and marine biodiversity in vulnerable sites in Somalia.

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The National Education Policy 2020 is a welcome and ambitious re-imagination of India’s education system into a modern, progressive and equitable one. However, it faces criticisms regarding its structure and content.

About National Education Policy 2020

• Background: The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) had constituted a Committee for drafting the new education policy  (Chairman: Dr. K. Kasturirangan) in June 2017.
  • The NEP replaces the National Policy on Education, 1986.
  • The Central government’s National Education Policy (NEP), established in 2020, came into effect during the 2023- 2024 academic Year.
• Emphasis: The NEP 2020 lays particular emphasis on the development of the creative potential of each individual.
• Principle: The NEP is based on the principle that education must develop the foundational capacities of literacy and numeracy and higher-order cognitive capacities, such as critical thinking and problem solving and also social, ethical, and emotional capacities and dispositions.

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Key Highlights of the National Education Policy 2020

• Holistic and Multidisciplinary Education: The NEP emphasises a shift from a rigid, compartmentalised education system to one that promotes holistic learning. The policy advocates the integration of arts, humanities, and sciences, encouraging students to explore diverse subjects and discover their passions.
• Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE): The policy focuses on the crucial early years of a child’s development. It aims to provide a strong foundation for learning by integrating Early Childhood Care and Education into the formal education system. This will help enhance children’s cognitive, social, and emotional skills from an early age.
• Reimagining School Education: It aims to transform the current 10+2 schooling system into a more flexible 5+3+3+4 structure. 
  • The first five years will focus on foundational learning, followed by three years of preparatory education and four years of multidisciplinary secondary education. 
  • This approach aligns with global standards and promotes experiential learning and critical thinking.
• Multilingualism and Language Proficiency: Recognizing India’s linguistic diversity, the NEP encourages the teaching of regional languages along with Hindi and English. This move not only promotes cultural inclusivity but also aims to improve language proficiency and communication skills among students.
• Assessment Reforms: The policy seeks to replace rote memorization with a competency-based approach to assessments. It encourages formative and continuous evaluations to gauge a student’s progress based on their understanding and problem-solving abilities rather than just marks.
  • India’s first national assessment regulator PARAKH has been launched as part of the implementation of the NEP 2020 that will bring the much-needed uniformity in assessment. 
• Promoting Digital Learning: With a focus on leveraging technology to improve access and quality of education, the NEP emphasizes the use of digital resources and e-learning platforms. This will help bridge the digital divide and ensure that students from all walks of life have equal access to educational opportunities.
• Higher Education Reforms: The NEP envisions a multidisciplinary and flexible higher education system. It aims to promote research and innovation, foster creativity, and establish robust connections between academia and industry. The policy also paves the way for foreign universities to set up campuses in India, promoting international collaboration.
• Teacher Empowerment: Recognizing the pivotal role of teachers in shaping young minds, the NEP aims to enhance teacher training and professional development. It also encourages a more learner-centric pedagogical approach and a greater emphasis on nurturing teachers’ creative and critical thinking skills.
• Gender and Social Inclusion: The NEP emphasises the importance of inclusivity, aiming to bridge gender and social gaps in education. It strives to ensure equal opportunities for all, regardless of gender, caste, or economic background.
• Greater Flexibility: Implementation of the Multi Entry and Multiple Exit (MEME) options within the framework of the NEP is a vital component of NEP 2020, offering students greater flexibility and choice in their educational pathways.

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Benefits of New Education Policy 2020

Issues with National Education Policy 2020

• Standardised Interoperable & Mobility-based Higher Education Ecosystem: The credit-based eight-semester format seeks to create this ecosystem, where students can transfer their credits theoretically anywhere, impacting engagement in meaningful academic work. 
  • Education is a function of reception and reciprocation, of learning, absorbing, evaluating and responding critically. However, this reimagining of higher education seems like education as a means to survive in the marketplace, with a huge price attached to it.
• Truncation of Syllabus: As a result of the credit-based system (where the structure determines the content and not vice versa, as it ought to be) syllabi in all disciplines have been stunted. 
  • Example: Even the chapters prescribed have been truncated in many instances. 
  • A poem by Walt Whitman named ‘Passage to India’ has 255 lines across 13 sections. Under the NEP syllabus, just 68 lines across 4 sections have been prescribed. However, it is a philosophical poem that needs to be understood in its entirety.
• Dilution of Core Syllabus: The bigger problem with NEP pedagogy is the dilution of the core subject, impacting the gain of specialised knowledge. 
  • By diluting the core content of the subject, NEP is causing the lowering of standards in domain-centric knowledge dispensation and absorption.
  • Example: For Economics Honours in the St Xavier’s University, Kolkata, only one out of eight courses directly relate to the honours subject, while the rest cover various other areas of specialised knowledge such as human behaviour and media studies.
• Assessment Burden on Students: Under the NEP, students are required to take seven to eight exams per semester with many internal assessments. 
  • This, combined with marks for attendance separately and for continuous assessment classes attended, creates a huge bureaucratic load (both for students and teachers).
• Practical Exams in Arts Subjects: Under NEP, practicals were prescribed for even non-core Arts subjects, which is impractical. 
  • However, after facing the impracticalities of conducting practical exams for non-core subjects, Delhi University recently removed it.
• Implementation and Resource Allocation: Issues like lack of infrastructure, inadequate funding, and shortage of trained teachers need to be addressed to ensure the policy’s success.
• Digital Divide: While the policy emphasises the use of technology in education, the existing digital divide, particularly in rural areas and among socio-economically disadvantaged groups, may hinder the equitable implementation of technology-driven learning solutions.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: The NEP 2020 lacks a clear monitoring and evaluation mechanism to assess its progress towards achieving SDG-4.

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• Multiple Entry And Multiple Exit (MEME): Indian institutions are likely to face several issues in implementing the MEME system under the new education policy.
  • According to the report, while the MEME looked like a flexible system, which was being operated by Western educational institutions effectively, it might not work well in the country. 
• Role of State & Accessibility: Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) Scheme aims to provide strategic funding to eligible state higher educational institutions. Strategic funding to higher educational institutions based on critical appraisal of State’s plans.
  • Limited access to higher education in socio-economically disadvantaged areas due to financial barriers, geographical constraints, stereotype threat faced by students of marginalised sections etc.
• Linguistic Issues: Most of the HEIs primarily use English as a medium of instruction and there is a  lack of HEIs that teach in local languages. This leads to exclusion of non-english speakers, cultural and regional disconnect, and exacerbation of economic disparities.
• Lack of Funding: Public investment in the Education sector needs to reach 6% of GDP at the earliest. According to the Economic Survey 2022-23, total education outlay added up to 2.9% of the GDP.
  • There is scope for India as well to increase its budgetary allocation in education from a mere 2.9% of its GDP to 6%.

Conclusion

While the NEP 2020 aims to bring about positive transformations in the Indian education system, it is essential to critically evaluate its pros and cons. Stakeholder input is crucial for meaningful reforms in education. To improve NEP, there is a need to reassess its credit-based system, emphasising core subjects and eliminating non-core courses. 

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