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Recently, Ivory Coast became the 10th African country to sign the UN Water Convention.

UNECE Water Convention

• About: The Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention) is an international environmental agreement and one of the five environmental treaties negotiated by UNECE.
• Adoption:  It was adopted in Helsinki in 1992 and came into effect in 1996. 
• Requirements for Parties: Parties must prevent, control, and reduce transboundary impact, use transboundary waters reasonably and equitably, and ensure their sustainable management.
• Cooperation: Parties sharing transboundary waters must cooperate by entering into specific agreements and establishing joint bodies.
• Framework Agreement: The Convention does not replace bilateral and multilateral agreements for specific basins or aquifers but encourages their establishment, implementation, and further development.
• Significance: The Water Convention is a powerful tool to promote and operationalize the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its SDGs.
  • It directly supports implementation of target 6.5, which requests all countries to implement integrated water resources management, including through transboundary cooperation, as appropriate.
  • The Convention and its programme of work are also relevant for other SDGs, such as all the other targets of goal, but also: goals 2, 7, 13, 15, 16, 17 and target 11.5.
• Expansion: The Convention was originally negotiated as a regional framework for the pan-European region. Following an amendment procedure, since March 2016 all UN Member States can accede to it

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United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

• About: It was established on March 28, 1947, and is one of the five regional commissions under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Economic and Social Council.
  • Its headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland.
• Aim: To promote economic cooperation and integration among its member states. 
• Members: The commission consists of 56 member states, primarily from Europe, with several from outside the region. Its transcontinental Eurasian and non-European members include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Canada, Georgia, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, the USA, and Uzbekistan.

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The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has approved a loan of $240.5 million to enhance the installation of rooftop solar systems throughout India. 

Objectives

• Expand Renewable Energy Access: Increase the availability and use of renewable energy sources.
• Support Government Goals: Aid India’s efforts to have non-fossil fuel energy sources make up about 50% of the country’s total electric power capacity by 2030.
• ADB’s Mission
  • Institution Overview: Established in 1966, ADB is owned by 68 members, including 49 from the Asia-Pacific region.
  • Goals: ADB is committed to fostering a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Asia and the Pacific while working towards eradicating extreme poverty.

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• ADB Financing for Rooftop Solar Systems

  • The Asian Development Bank (ADB) will channel its $240.5 million financing through two major institutions: the State Bank of India (SBI) and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). This funding aims to support both developers and end-users in the installation of rooftop solar systems.

• Distribution of Funds

  • State Bank of India (SBI): Receives $90.5 million from ADB’s Clean Technology Fund (CTF).
  • National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD): Allocated $150 million, with $80 million from ADB’s ordinary capital resources and $70 million from the CTF.

About Rooftop Solar

• Rooftop solar is related to the installation of solar panels on the roofs of buildings to generate electricity from sunlight.
• A typical solar rooftop system includes several key components:

  • Main Components

    • Solar Modules: Capture sunlight and convert it into electricity.
    • Solar Inverters: Convert the generated DC 
• India’s rooftop solar Potential
  • India’s residential rooftop solar potential is around 637 GW.
    • The report of Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) 2023 shows that over 250 million households in India have the technical capacity to install rooftop solar panels on their rooftop. 
      • Technical potential concentration: More than 60% technical potential is concentrated in seven states – Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Uttarakhand.
  • 2024 solar rooftop capacity: In March, total residential installed rooftop capacity reached around 11.87 GW.
    • This rise shows the highest  annual growth to date. 
    • The installed rooftop capacity is forecasted to reach 4GW of capacity in 2024. 

Benefits of Rooftop Solar Installations

• Reduced Strain on Power Distribution: By generating electricity closer to the point of consumption, rooftop solar installations reduce the load on the overall power distribution system.
• Minimized Transmission Losses: Generating electricity locally helps curtail long-distance transmission losses.
• Enhanced Energy Independence: Rooftop solar systems contribute to energy independence and reduce power supply disruptions.
• Clean Energy Production: Solar energy is a green and renewable resource that generates power without emitting greenhouse gases during operation. 
  • By installing rooftop solar panels, both households and businesses can markedly reduce their carbon footprint and help combat climate change.
• Sustainable Source: Solar energy is inexhaustible and relies on the sun, which is a constant and renewable source of power. 
  • As long as sunlight is available, solar panels will continuously produce electricity, unlike finite fossil fuels.

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Challenges of Rooftop Solar

• High Initial Costs: Installing a rooftop solar system involves significant initial expenditure. 
  • However, this cost is often balanced by long-term reductions in energy bills and the availability of government incentives.
• Dependence on Sunlight: Solar power generation is reliant on sunlight, which can vary due to weather conditions and the time of day. 
  • To ensure a steady power supply, it may be necessary to use storage solutions, such as batteries, or maintain a connection to the electricity grid.
• Maintenance Requirements: Solar panels need regular cleaning and maintenance to operate effectively. Factors such as dust, debris, and shading can impact their performance, necessitating periodic attention.
• Regulatory and Technical Challenges: In certain areas, regulatory issues, insufficient infrastructure, or technical constraints may hinder the widespread adoption of rooftop solar systems.

Government Initiatives to Promote Solar Energy

India has implemented several initiatives to advance solar energy and enhance its renewable energy infrastructure. 

• FDI in Renewable Energy: Allows up to 100% foreign investment in renewable energy projects to boost international involvement.
• One Sun, One World, One Grid: Aims to create a global solar power grid for enhanced international solar energy cooperation.
• Green Energy Corridor: Develops infrastructure to efficiently transmit renewable energy and integrate it into the national grid.
• Solar Park Scheme: Establishes large-scale solar parks with infrastructure support for solar power projects.
• PM-KUSUM: Supports solar energy use in agriculture, including solar pumps for farmers.

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Recently, General elections in the U.K saw a record 263 women MPs (40%) have been elected to the House of Commons. 

• The South African National Assembly has around 45% women representation, while the U.S. House of Representatives has 29%. 

Political Representation of Women in India

• India as a sovereign republic provided the right to vote for all its women right from the first general elections in 1952. 
• While the right to vote was provided to all women since the commencement of the Constitution, the representation of women in the Lok Sabha and State legislative assemblies has been far from satisfactory. 
• Lok Sabha: The percentage of women MPs in the Lok Sabha had been very low between 5% and 10% till 2004.
  • It rose marginally to 12% in 2014 and currently stands at 14% in the 18th Lok Sabha. 
  • The 17th Lok Sabha has the highest ever number of women politicians with a total of 78 but declined to 74 in 18th Lok sabha. 
• Rajya Sabha: Percentage of women is around 11. 
• Legislative Assemblies: There are only around 9 per cent women MLAs in the Assemblies of our states. 
• Legislative Councils: This is much less in the case of Legislative Councils, where around 5 percent are women.
• Party Wise Highest: Trinamool Congress has the highest proportion of women MPs in the current Lok Sabha at 38%. 
  • The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party and principal Opposition Congress party have around 13% each. 
  • Naam Tamilar Katchi, a State party in Tamil Nadu, has been following a voluntary quota of 50% for women candidates in the last three general elections.

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Importance Of Political Representation of Women

• Diverse Perspectives: Women bring different perspectives and experiences, leading to more comprehensive and inclusive decision-making.
  • Strengthening Democracy : Women’s participation ensures that political institutions are more representative of the population, enhancing the legitimacy of democratic processes.
  • Public Trust: Diverse and inclusive political representation increases public trust in political institutions and processes.
• Focus on Social Issues: Female leaders often prioritise issues such as healthcare, education, and social welfare, improving the quality of life for communities.
  • Esther Duflo talks about her work with Raghabendra Chattopadhyay in India where there is a policy of affirmative action for women in politics at the local level
    • This  led to not only increased provision of public goods that benefited women and children more, 
    • This exposure to a woman in power also resulted in higher graduation rates for girls, reduced the parents’ aspiration gap between boys and girls, and increased teenagers’ own aspirations for their lives and careers.
  • For example: Chhavi Rajawat: Often hailed as the changing face of rural Rajasthan, Chhavi also addressed delegates at the UN’s 11th Info poverty World Conference in 2011.
• Promoting Gender Equality:  Women’s political participation challenges traditional gender roles and promotes gender equality in all spheres of life.
  • Six countries have 50 per cent or more women in parliament in single or lower houses: Rwanda (61 per cent), Cuba (56 per cent), Nicaragua (54 per cent), Andorra (50 per cent), Mexico (50 per cent), New Zealand (50 per cent), and the United Arab Emirates (50 per cent) 
• Conflict Resolution: Women’s involvement in peacebuilding efforts can contribute to more sustainable solutions to complex societal challenges. 
  • For example: Leymah Gbowee, a Liberian peace activist, played a key role in the peace process that ended the Second Liberian Civil War.
• Empowering Future Generations: Female political leaders serve as role models, inspiring other women and girls to pursue leadership roles in various sectors.
  • Draupadi Murmu as the first female tribal President of India has inspired young girls and women to pursue leadership positions in politics and public service.

Challenges In Women’s Participation In India’s Electoral Landscape

• Structural Norms and Gender Discrimination: Women’s limited political voice and representation stem from long-standing structural norms and deep-rooted gender discrimination present in Indian society. 
  • These norms create barriers for women to fully participate in the political arena.
• Societal Prejudices and Political Party Practices: Societal prejudices against women are perpetuated within political parties. 
  • These prejudices influence the allocation of seats and the hierarchy within political parties, limiting women’s access to key positions and opportunities to contest elections.
• Lack of Authority and Influence: Women often lack positions of authority and influence within political networks. This lack of influence diminishes their ability to shape policy decisions and have a meaningful impact within the political sphere.
• Dynastic and Celebrity Backgrounds: Women from dynastic and celebrity backgrounds might have more visibility and recognition, giving them an advantage over others. 
• Sarpanch-patism: Recently, the Supreme Court raised the concern that the Men often wielding the actual power behind elected women who remain “faceless wives and daughters-in-law” in grassroots politics.

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Government Initiatives

• Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023
  • It reserves one-third of all seats for women in Lok Sabha, State legislative assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, including those reserved for SCs and STs.
  • This would ensure a fair representation of women in legislatures that would increase gender sensitivity in parliamentary processes and legislation. 
  • It would also hopefully increase the number of women Ministers in the Centre and States.
• Reservation for Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions: 
  • The 73rd and 74th amendments of the Constitution in 1992/1993, provided for one-third reservation for women in panchayats and municipalities. 
  • Clause (3) of Article 243D of the Constitution ensures participation of women in Panchayati Raj Institutions by mandating not less than 1/3rd reservation for women out of a total number of seats to be filled by direct election and a number of offices of chairpersons of Panchayats.
  • However, attempts between 1996 and 2008 to provide similar reservation in the Lok Sabha and assemblies were unsuccessful.
• Capacity Building: Through a number of programmes, including the Rashtriya Gramin Swaraj Yojana (RGSY), Panchayat Mahila Evam Yuva Shakti Abhiyan (PMEYSA), Rajiv Gandhi Panchayat Sashaktikaran Abhiyan (RGPSA), and the recently launched Rashtriya Gramme Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA).

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The Sixteenth Finance Commission has begun its work by inviting suggestions from the public on the mandate set for it by the Centre. 

• The latest Finance Commission was constituted in December last year and is expected to submit its recommendations by October, 2025 that will be valid for five years starting from April 1, 2026.

Role of the Finance Commission

The Finance Commission is a constitutional body and provided by Article 280 of the Indian Constitution as a quasi-judicial body.

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• Appointing Authority: The President of India constitutes a Finance Commission every fifth year or at such a time that is considered necessary.
• Composition: The Finance commission composition consists of a chairman and four other members.
• Tenure: For the duration specified in Presidential order. The Commission is reconstituted typically every five years and usually takes a couple of years to make its recommendations.
  • Members are eligible for reappointment.
• Qualifications: The Parliament has been authorized by the constitution to determine the qualifications of the members and the manner in which they are to be appointed.
  • Specifications: Based on these powers, the Parliament has given the following specifications for appointing the members.
  • The chairman must have experience in public affairs while the other four members should be selected from amongst the following criteria:
    • A High Court judge or one qualified to become one
    • An individual having specialised knowledge of finance and accounts of the government
    • A person who possesses experience in financial matters and administration
    • A person who has special knowledge of economics
• Powers: Based on the Code of Civil Procedure 1908, the Finance Commission of India has all the powers of a Civil Court. 
  • Evidence Demand: The commission has powers to call witnesses, and ask for the production of a public document or record from any office or court.
• Mandates: 
  • Tax Distribution: Distributing shares of net proceeds of tax between the Union and the States and the allocation between the States of the respective shares of such proceeds.
    • The Centre, however, is not legally bound to implement the suggestions made by the Finance Commission. 
  • Rules for Grants-in-Aid: The rules that govern grant-in-aid to the states by the Centre from Consolidated Fund of India.
  • Tax Devolution at State Level: Augmenting the consolidated fund of the state to supply resources to panchayats and municipalities based on recommendations of the State Finance Commission.
  • Miscellaneous Matter: Any other matter referred by the President to the Commission in the interests of sound finance.
  • Submit Report: A report is submitted to the President, who lays it before both houses of the Parliament. The report is followed by an explanatory memorandum on the actions taken on its recommendations.

About the Distribution of Funds by the Finance Commission

The Finance Commission decides what proportion of the Centre’s net tax revenue goes to the States overall (vertical devolution) and how this share for the States is distributed among various States (horizontal devolution). 

• Horizontal Devolution: This devolution of funds between States is usually decided based on a formula created by the Commission that takes into account a State’s population, fertility level, income level, geography, etc. 
• Vertical Devolution: This devolution of funds however, is not based on any such objective formula. 
  • Nevertheless, the last few Finance Commissions have recommended greater vertical devolution of tax revenues to States. 
  • The 13th, 14th and 15th Finance Commissions recommended that the Centre share 32%, 42% and 41% of funds, respectively, with States. 
• Additional Aid: The Centre may also aid States through additional grants for certain schemes that are jointly funded by the Centre and the States.
• For Local Bodies: The 16th Financial Commission is also expected to recommend ways to augment the revenues of local bodies such as panchayats and municipalities.
  • As of 2015, only about 3% of public spending in India happened at the local body level, as compared to other countries such as China where over half of public spending happened at the level of the local bodies.

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Disagreements and Friction between the Centre and States

The Centre and the States have been at loggerheads over the issue of sharing tax revenues for a while now. 

• Inadequate Funds: The Centre collects major taxes such as the income tax, the corporate tax, and the goods and services tax (GST) while the States primarily rely on taxes collected from the sale of goods such as liquor and fuels that are beyond the ambit of GST. 
  • The States, however, are responsible for the delivery of many services to citizens, including education, healthcare and the police. 
  • This has led to complaints that the Centre has reduced the power of the States to collect taxes and that it does not give enough funds to the States to match with the scale of their responsibilities.
• On Distribution Percentage: The States and Centre often disagree on what percentage of the total tax proceeds should go to the States and about the actual delivery of these funds.
  • States argue that they should receive more funds than what is recommended by the Finance Commission as they have greater responsibilities to fulfil than the Centre. 
  • They also point out that the Centre does not even share the amount of funds recommended by the Finance Commissions, which they believe is already too low. 
  • Example: The Centre has devolved an average of only 38% of funds from the divisible pool to the States under the current Fifteenth Finance Commission as against the Commission’s actual recommendation of 41%.
• On Distribution Pool: States have complaints about what portion of the Centre’s overall tax revenues should be considered as part of the divisible pool out of which the States are funded. 
  • It is believed that cesses and surcharges, which do not come under the divisible pool and hence not shared with the States, can constitute as much as 28% of the Centre’s overall tax revenues in some years, causing significant revenue loss for States. 
• On Governance by the States: It is argued that more developed States with better governance are being penalised by the Centre to help States with poor governance. 
  • States such as Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have also complained that they receive less money from the Centre than what they contribute as taxes. 
  • Example: Tamil Nadu received only 29 paise for each rupee that the State contributed to the Centre’s exchequer while Bihar gets more than ₹7 for each rupee it contributes. 
• Political Influence: Some critics also believe that the Finance Commission, whose members are appointed by the Centre, may not be fully independent and immune from political influence.

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The crop of Maize has also undergone a Green Revolution in India with its annual output increasing more than 3 times between 1999-2000 and 2023-24, from 11.5 to over 35 million tonnes (mt), with average per-hectare yields also rising from 1.8 to 3.3 tonnes.

The Green Revolution in Maize

• Private Sector Led: The Green Revolution in maize has been, and continues to be, a private sector-led one with  Private sector-bred hybrids accounting for more than 80% of the 10 million hectares-plus area planted to maize in India. 
  • First Generation Seeds: Their higher yields, from crossing two genetically dissimilar inbred plants, is however limited to the first generation only ie. the farmers cannot harvest the same yields if they save the grains from these and reuse as seed.

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About Maize

• Scientific name: Zea mays L.
• Native: Central America and Mexico
• Maize belongs to the tribe Maydeae of the grass family Poaceae and is widely cultivated as cereal grain 
• Queen of Cereals: Maize is known as the queen of cereals because it has the highest genetic yield potential among the cereals.
• Types: It has many types like, normal yellow/ white grain, sweet corn, baby corn, popcorn, waxy corn, high amylase corn, high oil corn, quality protein maize, etc.
• Maize Production In India: 
  • India is the fifth largest producer of Maize in 2020 as per FAO data and India’s share in world production accounted for 2.59 per cent.
  • Among cereals maize has witnessed  highest growth rate in terms of area and productivity
    • Productivity: Since 2010 maize productivity in India has increased at over 50 kg/ha/year, the highest among food crops.
    • Area: It is principally grown in two seasons, rainy (kharif) season representing  around 83% of maize area in India, and winter (rabi) corresponding  to 17% maize area.
  • Total Production: In financial year 2023, India’s production volume of maize was over 38 million metric tons which accounts for a close to around 10 percent of total food grain production in the country 
    • State-wise Share: The states of  Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka have the highest area under production (15% each) followed by Maharashtra (10%), Rajasthan (9%), Uttar Pradesh (8%).
    • Andhra Pradesh has the highest state productivity. Some districts like Krishna, West Godavari etc. records as high as 12 t/ha productivity.
  • Exports: The country has exported 3,453,680.58 MT of maize to the world for the in 2022-23 with major export destinations being,  Bangladesh, Vietnam, Nepal, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.
  • Usage: 
    • Staple Food Consumption: Maize in the form of Corn, Corn Flour etc is a source of Food for humans, but hardly a fifth of India’s maize production is used for direct human consumption.
    • Feed Stock: An estimated 60% goes as feed for poultry birds and livestock. 
      • Maize supplies carbohydrates, the principal energy source for poultry and livestock. Broiler feed for chickens  itself contains 55-65% maize by weight, with these at 50-60% for egg-layer feed, and 15-20% in cattle feed.
    • Industrial use: 14-15% of India’s maize utilisation is for industrial purposes. Maize grains have 68-72% starch, and 1-3% of other simple carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose and fructose). Starch has applications in the textile, paper, pharmaceutical, food and beverage industries.
    • Feedstock  for Ethanol: Maize is emerging as a feedstock for ethanol that is used for blending with petrol. Distilleries are considering the use of Maize to produce Ethanol in the off-season (May-October), when cane isn’t available.

Recent Developments in Maize Breeding Research

• Pusa Waxy Maize Hybrid-1: Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI)  has bred India’s first “waxy” maize hybrid with high amylopectin starch content (at 93.9%) making it better suited for ethanol production. 
  • The starch in maize is a mixture of two polymers, comprising glucose molecules bonded together in a straight chain (amylose) and in branched form (amylopectin).
    • Normal maize starch has 30% amylose and 70% amylopectin while the starch from IARI’s waxy maize hybrid (AQWH-4) has 93.9% amylopectin which will impart softness in the grain and would affect the starch recovery at 68-70% recovery and fermentation rates. 
    • Productivity: It has  an average grain yield of 7.3 tonnes per hectare and potential of 8.8 tonnes.
    • The higher recoverable starch from waxy maize should give 415-420 litres of Ethanol from one tonne of Maize grain, rising up from 390 litres of ethanol from one tonne of normal maize grain. 
  • Potential for Commercial Cultivation: The IARI-developed hybrid has been identified for release under the All-India Coordinated Research Project on Maize with future plans to move the  Central Variety Release Committee, whose approval will pave the way for the  hybrid to be officially released and notified for commercial cultivation.
    • Field Trails: IARI has signed a memorandum of understanding with the Uttar Pradesh Distillers’ Association for field trials of its waxy maize hybrid
• Maize Doubled Haploid (DH) Facility: CIMMYT has opened a maize doubled haploid (DH) facility at Kunigal in Karnataka in partnership with the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore producing  100% homozygous (i.e. having two identical copies of a single gene), and genetically pure inbred lines of maize that can be used as parents for further crossing and breeding of hybrids.
  • Advantage: The Double Haploid technology enables production of completely uniform lines after just two cropping cycles and speeds up inbred line development, thereby improving the efficiency of maize breeding and shortening the process.
  • Knowledge sharing: CIMMYT is sharing its improved inbred lines with both public sector institutions and 25-odd private seed companies  including  Mahyco, Shriram Bioseed, Advanta Seeds, Nuziveedu Seeds, Kaveri Seeds, Mahindra Agri Solutions, Rasi Seeds and Indo-American Hybrid Seeds.

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Recently, K P Sharma Oli took oath as the prime minister of Nepal.

• There is now opportunity to upgrade the relationship to ‘positive’ and ‘stable’ with India.

India-Nepal Ties

India and Nepal share a unique and multifaceted relationship characterized by deep Political, Social, economic, and strategic ties. 

• Political: Both countries share Open Borders under the Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Both countries are also members of  South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation.

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• Social: The two countries have close bonds through marriages and familial ties, popularly known as Roti Beti ka Rishta.
  • Roti Beti ka Rishta signifies a bond that transcends political and economic dimensions, rooted in shared traditions, values, and human connections.
    • Shared Cultural Heritage:
      • India and Nepal share a rich cultural heritage with common festivals, languages, customs, and traditions.
      • Hinduism and Buddhism form strong cultural and religious links, with sacred sites such as Pashupatinath in Kathmandu and the birthplace of Buddha in Lumbini attracting pilgrims from both countries.
      • India is also supporting 2 heritage projects, namely, Pashupatinath Riverfront Development and Bhandarkhal Garden Restoration in Patan Durbar.
    • Intermarriages:
      • The “Beti” aspect of the relationship refers to intermarriages between Indians and Nepalis, fostering strong familial ties.
      • Marriages between individuals from border regions, such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India and the Terai region in Nepal, are common, further strengthening social bonds.
    • Trade and Livelihoods:
      • The “Roti” aspect symbolizes the economic interdependence, where trade and commerce across the open border facilitate livelihoods.
      • Many Nepalis work in India, contributing to the economies of both nations, while goods and services flow freely, benefiting local businesses and communities.
• Economic:
  • Trade: India remains Nepal’s dominant trade partner, steadily accounting for approximately 60-65% of all trade with Nepal. 
    • India is Nepal’s largest trading partner, the top-source country for tourists, the only supplier of petroleum products and the largest source of total foreign investment. 
    • India also provides transit for almost all of Nepal’s third-country trade and accounts for a significant share of inward remittances from pensioners, professionals and labourers working in India.
  • Investment: Indian firms are the biggest investors in Nepal, accounting for about 40% of total approved foreign direct investments. 
    • There are about 150 operating Indian ventures in Nepal. They are engaged in manufacturing, services (banking, insurance, dry port, education and telecom), power sector and tourism industries.
• Energy Cooperation: 
  • Electricity: In 2023, another long-term power trade agreement was signed between India and Nepal to export 10,000 megawatts of electricity from Nepal to India in 10 years. 
    • Investment in hydroelectricity production and distribution has overall increased. 
    • Tripartite Agreement : They have also helped Nepal initiate the export of hydroelectricity to Bangladesh under a tripartite agreement between Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
    • This was essential for Nepal to boost investors’ confidence in the hydro sector and ensure returns on their investment.
  • Petroleum: The countries are working on constructing two new petroleum pipelines between Siliguri, India and Jhapa, Nepal and Amlekhgunj and Chitwan. 
    • These projects were envisioned after the success of the Motihari-Amlekhgunj petroleum pipeline inaugurated in 2019, the first-ever cross-border pipeline in South Asia. 
    • Saving: It has saved transportation costs for Nepal by a minimum of Rs 1 billion per annum. 
    • In addition, the savings coming from pilferage, leakage, theft, and delays by using pipelines instead of trucks are significant.
• Water Resources: There are about 250 small and large rivers flowing from Nepal to India and constitute an important part of the Ganges river basin. 
  • A three-tier bilateral mechanism was established in 2008 to discuss all issues relating to cooperation in water resources and hydropower.
• Defence Cooperation: Indian and Nepalese military undertake annual joint military exercise ‘Surya Kiran’. India also provides equipment and training to the Nepalese army to assist in its modernisation.
• Connectivity: As Nepal is a landlocked country, it is dependent on India for access to sea. Both countries have signed MoU to provide rail connectivity and are also working to develop inland waterways in Nepal to connect Nepal with the Indian ocean.
• • It has also been agreed that two additional integrated check posts (ICPs) in Bhairahaba and Dodhara-Chandani in Nepal, which help facilitate the smooth movement of cargo and passenger vehicles, will be built with the grant assistance of India.
  • Railways:  Cross-border freight rail between India and Nepal has been operational and several other cross-border roads and bridges are being built. 
    • Feasibility study of the Raxaul-Kathmandu railway has been completed and a direct rail service from Ayodhya to Janakpur is being considered.
• Digital Connectivity: Nepal and India decided to establish and enhance digital financial connectivity. 
  • As a result, Indians travelling to Nepal can make payments through their mobile phones. 
  • This facility will help hassle-free payments to traders, tourists, pilgrims, students, and people who travel to India for medical treatment. 
  • The soon-to-be operationalised mobile transfer mechanism will help workers in Nepal and India transfer earnings through formal channels in their respective home countries.
• Disaster Management: Both countries are working through BIMSTEC for collective disaster response. India’s assistance during 2015 is also well appreciated by Nepal.
  • It has always been the first responder during disasters and emergencies in Nepal. 
  • The country, in addition to the immediate rescue and relief package, provided a financial package of $75 million for the development of the recently earthquake-hit areas of Nepal.

Significance of India-Nepal Relation

• Buffer State: Nepal acts as a buffer state against any possible aggression from China. Thus, India needs an amicable relation with Nepal to check the expansionist tendencies of its neighbour.
• Economic and Strategic Considerations: Nepal plays a significant role in India’s regional security and economic stability, including as a major source of remittances.
  • It is the seventh largest remittance–sending country to India, helping provide for livelihoods in its poorest parts, from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, all the way to Odisha. 
• India’s internal security:  India and Nepal share an open border that boosts economic relations between the two countries. There has been a long tradition of free movement of people across the border. 
  • Open borders are also exploited for illegal activities such as circulation of counterfeit Indian currency, human trafficking, NARCO trafficking, infiltration of terrorists backed by ISI, Pakistan etc. 
• Regional Dynamics: There is a strategic importance of stable Nepal-India relations for broader South Asian stability and development.

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Issues and Recent Deterioration of India-Nepal Ties

• Constitution & Madhesi Issue: In 2015, Nepal promulgated a new constitution that granted significant political privileges to the ruling hill tribes while imposing discrimination against plains-dwelling communities such as the Madhesis. 

• • The constitution also introduced stringent requirements for Madhesis to obtain citizenship. 
  • This became a contentious issue between India and Nepal, leading to economic sanctions including blockades on gas and fuel supplies by India.
  • India has been criticised in Kathmandu for having sided with the “discredited” Madhesi leaders, and shutting its eyes to the blockade that hurt the aam Nepali. 
  • Political Change: Over a quarter century ago, a 15-month blockade by India led to a political change in Nepal and, subsequently, the advent of democracy.
• Escalation of Territorial Dispute: 
  • New Map: Previously, tensions between New Delhi and Kathmandu escalated after Nepal unveiled a political map in mid-May 2020, integrating regions such as Lipulekh, Kalapani, and Limpiyadhura, which were previously delineated in India’s November 2019 map.
  • The Prachanda cabinet’s decision to put a map showing areas in India as part of its territory on a new currency note has drawn a strong reaction from New Delhi, and is seen as provocative by many in Nepal
  • Officials have criticized Nepal’s actions, labeling them as breaches of bilateral agreements and potentially worsening the relationship between the two nations.
• Rising Chinese Footprint: 
  • Investment: In 2019 China accounted for approximately 40% of new FDIs and 90% of total FDI against India’s 30%.
  • Elevated Partnership: During the visit of Xi Xinping, Nepal and China elevated their ties from Comprehensive Partnership of Cooperation to Strategic Partnership of Cooperation.
  • Connectivity: 
    • In 2017, Nepal formally joined the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) of China. 
    • China is also developing a US$ 2.5 billion trans-Himalayan railway connecting Tibet to Nepal’s capital city Kathmandu.
    • China and Nepal have also signed an agreement for construction of an all-weather road connecting Tibet and Kathmandu under The Trans Himalayan Multidimensional connectivity network.
• Big Brotherattitude: There is a widespread perception in Nepal that India does not respect the country’s sovereignty and that it often intervenes in Nepal’s domestic affairs.India has been perceived to be playing a role of big brother in the region.

Way Forward

• Change to Hands-off Policy:  India’s relentless engagement with Nepal’s politics and governance goes against the principle of non-interference that is part of the Panchsheel doctrine. 
  • New Delhi should also understand that a hands-off policy will lead to a politically stable and economically energised Nepal, which will in turn benefit India’s own national security and the economy of its Hindi heartland.
• Bilateral Dialogue: Both countries should prioritise dialogue and resolution of pending bilateral issues, including territorial disputes and economic cooperation.
• Respect for Sovereignty: Upholding principles of non-interference and respecting sovereignty of each other nations are essential for rebuilding trust and fostering a cooperative relationship.
• India-Nepal Eminent Persons’ Group: Mr. Modi and Mr. Oli who together nominated the eight-member India-Nepal Eminent Persons’ Group back in 2017. 
  • The team finalised its consensus report the following year, whose implementation is expected to lift bilateral relations towards a transparent, confident and equal partnership.
  • The EPG report, which was finalised in 2018, had prominently recommended revision of this treaty. But the report has not yet been officially adopted.
• Institutional Mechanism: Both countries can also create institutional mechanisms to play an active role in several important multilateral forums such as BBIN, BIMSTEC, NAM, and SAARC to serve their common interests.
• People-to-People Links: India needs to appreciate that the people-to-people links between our two countries have an unmatched density and no other country, including China, enjoys this asset. India needs to leverage this precious asset to ensure a stable and mutually-productive state-to-state relationship.

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Conclusion

• The relationship between India and Nepal is unique, steeped in historical, cultural, economic, and strategic significance. 
• Despite facing challenges, such as border disputes, political differences, and external influences, the bonds of “Roti-Beti ka Rishta” underscore the deep-rooted ties that transcend temporary setbacks. 
• Moving forward, both nations must prioritize mutual respect, dialogue, and cooperation, recognizing their interdependence and the benefits of a stable and prosperous partnership.

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Recently, U.S. have expressed concerns privately, directly to the Indian government of India on Mr. Modi visit to Russia

• On the eve of a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) summit in Washington the U.S. Ambassador to India said that – In times of conflict there is no such thing as strategic autonomy; we will, in crisis moments, need to know each other.

About Strategic Autonomy

• Definition: It denotes the ability of a state to pursue its national interests and adopt its preferred foreign policy without being constrained in any manner by other states. 
• Unipolar World:  Theoretically,, only a lone superpower in a unipolar international order truly possesses strategic autonomy since it is the only country that would wield overwhelming economic, industrial, military and technological capabilities and thus the power to resist pressure from all other states. 
• Bipolar World: Even superpowers become susceptible to the pressures exerted by their superpower peers in bipolar or multipolar orders, which means that their ability to be strategically autonomous is not absolute but only relative.

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Evolution Of India’s Approach To Maintaining Strategic Autonomy Has Evolved

All Indian governments since Independence have followed strategic autonomy in one form or the other, whether it is called non-alignment, multi-alignment, multi-directional foreign policy or strategic autonomy: Policy of De-hyphenation

• Bipolar World Order (1947 to 1991)
  • During this period, global power was primarily divided between the U.S. and the USSR. 
  • India’s Approach: India adopted the principle of Non-Alignment to:
    • Resist Dilution of Sovereignty: Avoid being drawn into the ideological and military conflicts of the Cold War superpowers.
    • Rebuild its Economy: Focus on economic development without external interference.
    • Consolidate its Integrity: Maintain political stability and national unity.
  • Conventional understanding about India’s foreign policy: It suggests that India’s foreign policy was too idealistic in the initial years to understand the currents of power politics. 
  • Non-Alignment Impact: But non-alignment and Asian solidarity, as envisaged by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and others, helped India, a newly decolonised republic that was born into a bipolar global order
    • It mobilizes voices in the Third World and stays out of both blocs and pursues its interests and those of the newly decolonised countries. 
    • This gave both a moral footing and pragmatic levers to India’s foreign policy.

• Unipolar World Order (1991 to 2008)
  • The fall of the Soviet Union led to a unipolar world dominated by the U.S., with China rising as a significant power.
  • India’s Approach: 
    • Engaging with New Partners: India intensified relations with the U.S., Israel, and ASEAN countries to diversify its strategic partnerships.
    • Securing Nuclear Options: Conducted nuclear tests in 1998 (Pokhran II) to establish itself as a nuclear power and enhance its strategic autonomy.

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• Multipolar World Order (Present)
  • Currently, power is distributed among multiple countries with significant military, cultural, and economic influence.
  • India’s Approach: Navigating complex global dynamics by building strategic partnerships while maintaining an independent foreign policy stance.

Wrong Presumption of USA

• U.S. need not see this as an unfriendly foreign policy choice:
• India’s Vision: India is not a disruptive, revisionist power. It supports a multilateral global order, and that is because it wants the international system to be more representative in line with the geopolitical realities of the present. 
  • India wants to improve the system where its voice, and that of the Global South, would be heard with greater interest. 
• Strategic Autonomy for India: For India, Strategic autonomy does not call for isolationism. 
  • It calls for greater engagement with different power centres rooted in informed national interest. 
• Not a Zero Sum Game But Positive-Sum Game: Theorists of strategic autonomy do not look at foreign policy as a zero-sum game, where one party gains something at the expense of others. 
  • For them, it is a positive-sum game, where everyone gains.
  • For example: India’s energy trade with Moscow made sure that Russian crude kept flowing into the market, helping steady global oil prices. 
    • Its close cooperation with Russia can also act as a speed breaker in Moscow’s quasi-alliance with China, which the West sees as the only “revisionist” power that has the capability to rewrite the existing global order.
• Coming out of Unipolar Mentality: This is the unipolar mentality — you are either with us or against us. This approach was not quite successful even during the unipolar era, as the two-decade-long war against terror would testify

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Importance of Russia

• Economical Beneficial: While energy ties with Russia are largely opportunistic and driven by cheap prices (India’s crude imports from Russia jumped from $2.4 billion in 2021-22 to $46.5 billion in 2023-24), the defence partnership is structural. 
• Defence Partner: Russia is the source of over 40% of India’s defence imports, and 86% of the Indian military’s equipment is of Russian origin. 
• Important Partner in Asia: Russia is also an important partner in continental Asia where India works with Eurasian powers for economic progress, connectivity and tackling security challenges.
• China Factor: Russia’s deepening ties with China alter the essence of India’s historical partnership with Moscow. 
• Opportunity: But it is also an opportunity to recast the India-Russian partnership as a more equal bilateral partnership — during the Cold War it was heavily lopsided — where both sides would be mindful of each other’s sensitivities. India would not like to see Russia, cut off from the West, going completely into the Chinese embrace, and Moscow would like to have multiple options rather than putting all its eggs in one basket of the ‘Middle Kingdom’. 
• Importance of India’s Autonomy
  • If India were part of any alliance systems, such as Germany, for example, which had to silently accept the destruction of the Nord Stream pipeline which it part owns, India would not have the strategic space to pursue its partnership with Russia, while staying a closer partner of the West. 

Does Strategic Autonomy Burden for India?

• Current World order: In the current world order where countries are polarised and tilt towards either one of the poles, maintaining strategic autonomy is a difficult task.
  • For example, US-China Rivalry: Navigating the growing geopolitical tensions between the United States and China is a significant challenge. India needs to balance its strategic partnerships with both powers while safeguarding its interests.
  • Russia-Ukraine Conflict:  While maintaining warm ties with Russia, including agreements on boosting trade and cooperation on various fronts, India also addressed concerns about the Ukraine war and the need for peaceful resolution. 
    • This balancing act becomes increasingly difficult as geopolitical tensions rise, forcing India to make tough choices that may disappoint one partner or another.
• Multilateral Commitments: Balancing commitments in various international organizations (UN, BRICS, G20, etc.) while maintaining an independent policy stance is complex.
  • For example: SCO led by Russia-China is seen as counter-NATO organisation,  while the Quad includes the US and its allies is seen as a coalition to counter China, and by extension Russia.
• India’s Marginal Role in Key Global Flashpoints:
  • Globally, while India is well positioned to be a key player in several key geopolitical flashpoints, in reality its role has often been marginal at best.
  • For Instance: New Delhi has played a marginal role in denuclearization talks as a non-party to the P5+1 process. Again, New Delhi has inherent interests in seeing a rapprochement in the Iran-U.S. relationship given India’s need to ensure low and stable energy prices and its overwhelming dependence on oil imports from the Middle East.
• India’s Status as a developing country: The evolving structure of the global economy necessitates further domestic reforms. However, India’s geo economic position constrains its geopolitical influence, allowing China to exert greater influence in India’s neighbourhood due to its financial strength.

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India’s Shift from Strategic Autonomy to Vishwamitra

One of the subtle but significant changes in the conduct of India’s foreign policy over the last decade has been the evolution of its diplomatic vocabulary: 

• Incongruence of Idea: 
  • The idea of “strategic autonomy” seems contradictory when one considers that India is the world’s third-largest economy, with the third-largest armed forces and the fourth-largest defense budget. 
  • This concept originates from the period of post-colonial insecurity and the persistent anxiety regarding being coerced into undesired decisions by dominant global powers.
• Limits of Strategic Autonomy for Major Powers:  
  • As a significant power in its own right, the scope of autonomy naturally broadens. 
  • Even so, there is no such thing as “absolute strategic autonomy” as even the world’s most powerful nation, the US, does not have total freedom of action.
• Developmental Challenges for India:  
  • Although the aggregate size of its economy gives India some of the critical attributes of a major power, its low per capita income underlines the massive developmental challenges at home.
• Decline in Strategic Autonomy Reference: 
  • It has been replaced by references to India as a “leading power”, “Vishwamitra”, “net security provider”, “first responder” to regional crises, “like-minded coalitions”, “minilateralism”, “interoperability”, and “global public goods”.

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