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The Supreme Court has ruled that the Centre-appointed Delhi Lieutenant Governor (L-G) has the power to nominate ‘aldermen’ to the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) without the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers from the Delhi Government.

Background of The Case

• The Delhi L-G, in 2023 nominated 10 aldermen by invoking his powers under Section 3 of the Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957 (DMC Act). 
  • The nomination was legally challenged by the Delhi government, who filed a plea seeking quashing of  notifications at the Supreme Court in March 2023.
• Argument: 
  • Powers under Article 239AA:  The Delhi Government argued that the notifications were illegal as the Delhi L-G can only make nominations based on the ‘aid and advice of the Council of Ministers’ as per the  special status given to the NCT of Delhi under Article 239AA of the Constitution of India. 
  • State (NCT of Delhi) v. Union of India 2018:  In this case the SC held that the Delhi L-G was bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers in all matters related to subjects under the State and Concurrent lists (besides the three excluded subjects).
    • The Delhi government pointed out that one of the subjects in the State List is ‘Local Government’ (Entry 5).
  • DMC ACT 1957: The Delhi L-G, argued a specifically defined role for the ‘Administrator’ under the DMC Act granting him the power to nominate aldermen and  it is not necessary to seek out the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers while exercising this power.
• Supreme Court Ruling: The SC held that the nomination of 10 aldermen in January 2023 was a valid exercise of power and the Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957 (DMC Act) gives the Delhi L-G the ‘explicit’ power to nominate aldermen without any requirement to consult the Council of Ministers.
  • The court referred to the five-judge bench decision in Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India (2023), which ruled that Parliament would have the power to legislate over subjects in the State List as well, when it comes to the NCT of Delhi.
    •  In this case that would include passing laws over ‘local government’, which is subject under the State List and would cover the DMC Act.

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About Aldermen 

• Alderman refers to a member of a city council or municipal body, derived from Old English.
• The Delhi L-G under Section 3 the DMC Act is empowered to nominate 10 aldermen who must be above 25 years of age having  special knowledge or experience in municipal administration.
  • Alderman play a crucial role in the functioning of the house through the Ward Committee.
• DMC Act:  Delhi is divided into 12 zones with the Act creating a ‘Wards Committee’ for each zone comprising elected representatives and the aldermen within that territory. 
• Functions: 
  • Voting Power: Although the aldermen do not have the right to vote in the MCD meetings, They can vote in the first meeting  of the MCD Standing Committee to elect a member of the Committee.
    • Each of the 12 Wards Committees must elect a member to be a part of the MCD Standing Committee in their first meeting. 
    • The remaining six Standing Committee members are chosen directly by the MCD house after the mayoral elections.
  • Alderman can also stand as candidates for being elected as a member of the Standing Committee. 
• Importance: 
• • Aldermen hold significant power and play an important role in the elections of Standing Committees, MCD in-house and ward committee meetings.
  • Stalling MCD’s functioning: The MCD’s Standing Committee  cannot be constituted without the alderman participating in the voting process. 
    • The Standing Committee of the MCD: It performs crucial functions, including entering into contracts involving more than Rs. 5 crore expenditure, appointing MCD officers to key positions, recommending budget revisions, or approving any exercise of power involving expenditure beyond the current year.

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Research suggests that around 8% of the human genome is composed of Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs) often referred to as ‘zombie’ regions.

What are Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs)?

• Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs) are sequences in the genome that originate from ancient viral infections.  Unlike typical viruses that invade cells and replicate, ERVs are embedded in the DNA of the host organism and are inherited across generations.

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• Characteristics
  • Integration into Host DNA: ERVs are the remnants of retroviruses that integrated their genetic material into the DNA of germ cells (sperm or egg cells), allowing them to be passed onto offspring.
  • Transmission: Once integrated, ERVs become a permanent part of the host genome and are transmitted vertically from parent to offspring.
  • Structure: They retain some structural elements of retroviruses, including long terminal repeats (LTRs) and viral genes (gag, pol, env), but are usually defective and incapable of producing infectious virus particles.

Examples and Research:

• Syncytins:
  • Syncytins are a class of genes thought to be descended from an ERV.
  • These genes originally came from viruses and were acquired by chance as the mammalian host evolved.
  • With time they have  become essential for the host because they helped create the placenta, an organ that became crucial to support a growing baby.
  • This change is thought to have been important for the evolution of mammals with placentas from their egg-laying ancestors. 
• ERVs in Cancer: Research has shown that specific ERVs can influence tumor formation and progression, such as the LTR10 element associated with colorectal cancer.
• Preeclampsia: Dysregulation of ERV-derived RNAs has been implicated in conditions like preeclampsia, indicating their ongoing influence on human health.

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Research and Future Prospects

• Regenerative Medicine: Understanding ERVs can lead to breakthroughs in regenerative therapies.
• Cancer Therapies: Insights into ERV roles in cancer could enhance treatment strategies.
• Personalized Medicine: ERV research contributes to tailored medical treatments based on individual genetic makeup.

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The Supreme Court’s landmark verdict in ‘The State of Punjab vs. Davinder Singh’ (2024) advanced the principle of substantive equality, reshaping the interpretation of reservation laws for SCs and STs. 

• In a string of rulings given over the last seven years, CJI Chandrachud has referred to substantive equality to stress that reservation is a facet of merit, and not an exception to the merit rule.

Substantive Equality

• About: Substantive Equality recognises that different individuals or groups may need different levels of support and intervention to achieve real equality in outcomes. It aims to address historical and systemic disadvantages by considering the unique backgrounds and specific needs of marginalised or disadvantaged groups
  • For example, in the context of reservations and affirmative action, it might mean creating sub-categories within SC/ST quotas to ensure that benefits reach the most disadvantaged segments within these communities.

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• Emphasis on: The principle emphasises achieving fair outcomes rather than just providing equal treatment.
• Addressing Historical Injustices: It recognizes and seeks to rectify past injustices and ongoing inequalities by providing targeted support and interventions.

Evolution of Supreme Court’s View on Reservation

• Initial Limiting Approach

  • Formal and Limiting Stance (1951)
    • State of Madras v. Champakam Dorairajan (1951): The Supreme Court initially took a formal and limiting approach and viewed reservations as an exception to equal opportunity.
    • The Supreme Court held that the reservation of seats in educational institutions was unconstitutional due to lack of specific constitutional provision like Article 16(4) of the Constitution for public employment.
    • B Venkataramana v. The State of Madras (1951): The Court restricted the definition of “backward classes” for reservations in public jobs to Harijans and backward Hindus.

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• • First Constitutional Amendment (1951)
    • Insertion of Article 15(4): Article 15(4) essentially an exception to Article 29 that prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, language, or any of them with respect to admission into educational institutions.
  • Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992)
    • Mandal Judgment: The Court upheld Articles 15(4) and 16(4) as special provisions, setting a 50% cap on reservations and continuing the view of reservations as exceptions to equality.
    • In the 1992 Indra Sawhney judgement, the SC held that reservations in promotions would dilute efficiency in administration.

• Transition to Substantive Equality

  • M R Balaji v. State of Mysore (1962)
    • Prescribing a 50% Ceiling: The Supreme Court set a 50% limit on reservations in educational institutions for the first time;
    • This limit is contested but it has endured, with the exception of the 10% Economically Weaker Section (EWS) quota introduced in 2019.
  • State of Kerala v. N M Thomas (1975)
    • Expansive Reading: The Court upheld relaxed qualifying criteria for SC/ST candidates in government jobs, viewing such measures as aligned with the principle of equality.

• Balancing Efficiency and Reservation

  • Article 335 and Efficiency (1992)
    • Article 335: Requires that reservations for SCs and STs in services and posts be implemented in a way that maintains the “efficiency of administration.”
    • Reservations in Promotions: The Court initially viewed reservations in promotions as potentially undermining administrative efficiency. While “merit” (unreserved posts) was equated with efficiency.
    • The 1995 Constitutional Amendment (Article 16(4A)) allowed reservations in promotions and introduced the concept of consequential seniority.
  • Constitution (Seventy-seventh) Amendment Act, 1995
    • Consequential Seniority: The Constitution (Seventy-seventh) Amendment Act, 1995 inserted Article 16(4A) to allow “consequential seniority”, which meant that the seniority attained by a reserved-category candidate over his peer in the general category by being promoted earlier would be retained for the next promotion. 
    • The law on consequential seniority was upheld in 2006 on the ground that the efficiency of administration was only relaxed, not “obliterated”, by the rule.

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• Reframing the Reservation-Merit Debate

  • Repudiation of Reservation-Merit Binary
    • Quota-Versus-Efficiency question: Recent rulings have challenged the binary view of reservation versus merit. 
    • The Chief Justice of India (CJI) argues that reservation is integral to substantive equality and not a mere concession. 
    • He argued that achieving higher marks in exams does not necessarily equate to higher efficiency; instead, meeting a minimum mark is sufficient to maintain effective administration.

• Recent Interpretation

• • Substantive Equality Emphasis: CJI Chandrachud’s rulings reflect a shift towards understanding reservations as essential to achieving substantive equality, aligning with the broader constitutional mandate to address historical disadvantages and ensure fair outcomes.

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A Donor Agreement between the Ayush Ministry and The World Health Organization has been signed to support the operations of the WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre (GTMC) in Jamnagar, Gujarat.

• Donation: As per the agreement, the Indian government will donate USD 85 million over a period of 10 years (2022-2032) to  the WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre (GTMC).
• The donor agreement was signed during a ceremony organized at WHO Headquarters in Geneva.
• The  agreement outlines the financial terms for implementing the activities of the WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre (GTMC) in Jamnagar, Gujarat
• The agreement recognizes the establishment of the WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre as a key knowledge hub for evidence-based Traditional Complementary and Integrative Medicine (TCIM) which aims  to advance the health and well-being of people and the planet.

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About The WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre (GTMC)

• The GTMC  is a knowledge centre for traditional medicine.
• Establishment: The WHO Global Traditional Medicine Centre was established in  Jamnagar, Gujarat in 2023 through a  Host Country Agreement signed between the Ministry of Ayush, the Government of India and WHO
  • The First global summit on Traditional Medicine was organised by the WHO and Ministry of Ayush in Jamnagar , Gujarat in August 2023.
• GTMC is the first and only global out-posted Centre for traditional medicine across the globe
• Focus: GTCM will strategically focus on 5 areas of works to maximise  the contribution of traditional medicine to global health and sustainable development. 
  • Evidence and Learning: The GTMC is mapping traditional medicine evidence and use with the help of AI and developing  educational resources,for traditional medicine awareness in health systems and capacity building of the traditional medicine workforce.
  • Data and Analytics: It is strengthening data and analytics through traditional medicine surveys that include indicators related to WHO’s Thirteenth General Programme of Work (GPW 13) and the Sustainable Development Goals, traditional medicine policy and practice, as well as inclusion of traditional medicines in World Health Survey+.
  • Sustainability and Equity: It  is working on country profiles of sociocultural and biodiversity heritages for sustainable development, equity and rights.
  •  Innovation and Technology:  In collaboration with the WHO Innovation Hub The GTCM is focusing on the identification and scaling up of innovations as game changers.
  • Training programs: The capacity building programs will include campus-based, residential or web-based training in partnership with the WHO Academy and other strategic partners.
• Traditional, complementary and integrative medicine in the WHO regions: 
  • African Region: African Traditional Medicine
  • American Region: Osteopathy, chiropractic
  • Eastern Mediterranean Region: Traditional Arab and Islamic medicine, including Unani
  • European Region: Naturopathy, homeopathy
  • South East Asian Region: Ayurveda, yoga, unani, nuad Thai
  • Western Pacific Region: Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture, tuina 

Other Areas of Collaboration between The Ministry of Ayush and WHO

• The development of benchmark documents for training and practice in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha systems (AYUSH) and creation of WHO terminology for these practices
• The introduction of a second module in the Traditional Medicine Chapter of the International Classification of Diseases-11
• The development of apps like M-Yoga and support for the International Pharmacopoeia of Herbal Medicine (IPHM)

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A total of 134 countries and currency unions, representing 98% of the global GDP, are currently investigating the potential of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs).

India’s Initiative 

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has been proactive, launching a pilot project for the ‘digital rupee’ in late 2022.
• Types of Digital Rupee
  • CBDC-W (Wholesale): For settling secondary market transactions.
  • CBDC-R (Retail): A digital version of fiat money, serving as a direct liability of RBI, unlike UPI, which involves commercial banks.

About Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs)

• A Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) is a digital form of fiat money issued by a central bank.
  • It is also known as the digital fiat currency or digital base money. 
• It is distinct from cryptocurrencies and virtual currencies as it is centrally controlled. 
• It can be considered a liability of the central bank, similar to physical banknotes and coins.

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• Characteristics of Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)

  • Digital Counterpart to Fiat Money:
    • CBDCs function as digital equivalents to traditional fiat currencies, fulfilling the roles of payment, unit of account, and store of value, similar to paper banknotes.
  • Unique Identifiability:
    • Each unit of CBDC is uniquely identifiable, ensuring security and preventing counterfeiting.
  • Part of the Base Money Supply:
    • CBDCs are considered part of the base money supply, similar to physical currency, and represent a liability of the central bank.
  • Digital Bearer Instrument:
    • CBDCs can be stored, transferred, and transmitted across various digital payment systems and services, independent of the specific system used for transactions.

• Implications for Commercial Banks

  • Lower Commissions: Potentially lower commission fees due to the streamlined nature of digital transactions.
  • Reduced Customer Data-Selling: Less opportunity for commercial banks to sell customer data.
  • Deposit and Credit Policies: Changes in deposit accumulation and credit policies due to higher funding costs.

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Cryptocurrency vs. Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)

Benefits of CBDC

• Financial Inclusion: CBDC aims to expand access to digital financial services, particularly for those without bank accounts.
• Enhanced Payments: Improves the efficiency and speed of digital payments, including cross-border transactions.
• System Resilience: CBDC can operate independently of commercial banks, making the payment system more robust.
• Economic Growth: Increased financial inclusion can contribute to economic growth.
• Global Integration: CBDC can facilitate cheaper and faster international payments, benefiting India as a major remittance recipient.
• International Collaboration: Participation in global CBDC projects can foster interoperability and cooperation.

Challenges in Implementing CBDC

• Security and privacy: Safeguarding user data and preventing unauthorized access to CBDC wallets are paramount concerns. Striking a balance between privacy and security is essential to build trust among users.
• Scalability: CBDCs need to handle a large volume of transactions efficiently, especially during peak times. Ensuring the system can scale to meet increasing demand is vital for its success.
• Lack of perceived value proposition: For users to switch from existing payment methods, CBDCs need to offer clear benefits such as lower fees, faster transactions, or additional features.
• Monetary policy implications: CBDCs could affect the effectiveness of monetary policy tools. Central banks need to carefully consider how to manage these implications.
• Mitigating Cybersecurity Risks: Protecting against hackers trying to steal funds or personal data.
• Building Public Trust and Education: Gaining public trust and informing people about the benefits and security of CBDCs to overcome resistance to digital currency.

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Way Forward

• Address Privacy and Security: The RBI must tackle privacy and security concerns to encourage widespread adoption.
• Establish Regulatory Standards: Uniform standards for security, privacy, anonymity, and grievance redressal are necessary.
• Promote Interoperability: Enhancing interoperability and offering additional functionalities could incentivize users to adopt the digital rupee.
• International Cooperation: To fully leverage CBDCs for cross-border payments and remittances, India must engage in global CBDC projects once a comprehensive regulatory framework is in place.

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Recently, a team of epigraphists from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Mysore, embarked on an exercise to copy important stone inscriptions onto inked papers at the Thalishwarar temple in Kovilpalayam near Palladam, and a few other places in Tiruppur district.

• The team also recorded inscriptions from two hero stones, an Ayyanar sculpture, and a Nandi (bull) sculpture located a few kilometres from the temple.

Crucial Insights on the Embarking Exercise to Copy Stone Inscriptions onto Inked Papers

Thalishwarar temple is one of the ancient granite stone temples in the Kongu region. The inscriptions on the four walls of the shrine are dedicated to the presiding deity, Thaleekeeiswarar. The ASI has identified eight inscriptions inside the temple complex. 

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• About Eight Inscriptions: One inscription was in Vattezhuthu, probably from the 9th century, and the other seven inscriptions, likely to be from the 12th century, were in Tamil. 
  • Vattezhuthu: A form of Tamil writing script that was prevalent from the 5th century AD to the 12th century AD. 
  • 12 lines of Vattezhuthu inscription on the Arthamandapam of Thalikiswarar shrine. 
  • It was deciphered by the eminent Indian historian Prof Y Subarayalu. 
• Belong to: As per the inscription, the temple was built by the medieval Chera ruler Kokkandan Viranarayanan, who ruled the middle part of the Kongu region in the 9th century AD. 
  • It says that the temple built by Kokkandan Viranarayanan should be protected at any cost, and the entire hereditary of the person who damages it will severely suffer and perish.
    • The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala during Sangam period. 
    • Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. 
    • The Chera kings were also known as “Keralaputas” (sons of Kerala).
• Methodology Used: The inscriptions from the walls of the temple were copied using the “estampage method”.
  • Estampage is the method being used by the archaeologists to copy the characters and symbols from inscriptions. In this technique, an exact imitation of an inscription is obtained in an inked paper and then used for further analysis.
• Creating Awareness: Experts urged the people to alert the ASI if they come across any such rare inscriptions, as these engravings form the primary source of information for writing history.
  • Experts also created awareness about epigraphy among students from Bharathiar University in Coimbatore.

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Recently, the Budget 2024-25 recently allocated ₹1,309.46 crore for the Census, a significant reduction from 2021-22 when ₹3,768 crore was allocated for the decadal exercise, thereby indicating the considerable delay.

• The 2021 Census, initially scheduled to begin in 2020, is still on hold. 

About Census

A Census is Constitutionally mandated in India. There are repeated references to the Census exercise in the Constitution in the context of reorganization of constituencies for Parliament and State Assemblies. 

• Historical Background:
  • Ancient and Medieval Period:
    • Rigveda: Rig Veda reveals that some kind of population count was maintained during 800-600 BC in India.
    • Arthashastra: Written by Kautilya in the 3rd Century BC prescribed the collection of population statistics as a measure of state policy for taxation.
    • Ain-i-Akbari: During the regime of the Mughal king Akbar, the administrative report ‘Ain-e-Akbari’ also included comprehensive data pertaining to population, industry, wealth and many other characteristics.
  • Pre-Independence Period: The history of the census began with 1800 when England had begun its Census.
    • In its continuation, a census was conducted in Allahabad (1824) and in Banaras (1827-28) by James Prinsep.
    • The first complete census of an Indian city was conducted in 1830 by Henry Walter in Dacca (now Dhaka).
    • First Non-synchronous Census: It was conducted in India in 1872 during the reign of Governor-General Lord Mayo.
    • First Synchronous Census: The first synchronous census was taken under British rule in 1881, by W.C. Plowden (Census Commissioner of India).
  • Independence Period: The first census of Independent India was conducted in 1951, which was the seventh census in its continuous series. 
    • The enumeration period of this Census was from 9th to 28th, February 1951.

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• Conducted by: The decennial Census is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs.
  • Until 1951, the Census Organisation was set up on an ad-hoc basis for each Census.
• Mentioned in: The population census is a Union subject under Article 246 of India Constitution.
  • It is listed at serial number 69 of the seventh schedule of the constitution.
• Periodicity: It is not the legal requirement but the utility of the Census that has made it a permanent regular exercise. 
  • The Constitution does not say when the Census has to be carried out, or what the frequency of this exercise should be. 
  • The Census of India Act of 1948, which provides the legal framework for carrying out the Census, also does not mention its timing or periodicity.
    • There is, therefore, no Constitutional or legal requirement that a Census has to be done every 10 years. 
    • However, this exercise has been carried out in the first year of every decade, since 1881. 
      • The 2021 Census had to be postponed, due to COVID-19 outbreak, the first time in the 150-year history of India’s census operations. 
      • Most other countries also follow the 10-year cycle for their Census. 
      • There are countries like Australia that do it every five years.
• Schedule: The Census is essentially a two-step process involving a house-listing and numbering exercise followed by the actual population enumeration. 
  • The house-listing and numbering takes place in the middle of the year prior to the Census year. The population enumeration happens in two to three weeks of February.
    • The numbers revealed by the Census represent the population of India as on the stroke of midnight on March 1 in the Census year. 
    • To account for the births and deaths that might have happened during the enumeration period in February, the enumerators go back to the households in the first week of March to carry out revisions.
  • There are several intermediate steps as well, and preparations for the Census usually begin three to four years in advance. The compilation and publication of the entire data also takes months to a few years.
• Process Followed: 
  • Questions and Forms: Census data is taken by visiting each and every household and gathering particulars by asking questions and filling up census forms.
  • Confidential Information: The information collected during the process is confidential. In fact, this information is not even accessible to the courts of law.
  • Transportation to Data Processing Centers: The forms are transported to data processing centres located at 15 cities across the country.
  • Intelligent Character Recognition Software (ICR): This technology came in India in Census 2001 and has become the benchmark for censuses all around the globe.
  • Scanning and Extraction of Data: This involves the scanning of the census forms at high speed and extracting the data automatically using computer software.

Need for Conducting Census

The Census produces primary, authentic data that becomes the backbone of every statistical enterprise, informing all planning, administrative and economic decision-making processes. 

• To Shape Future Course: Population Census provides basic statistics on state of human resources, demography, culture and economic structure at local, regional and national level. All this information is vital to guide and shape the future course of the nation.
• Impact on Development: It is the basis on which every social, economic and other indicator is built. Lack of reliable data has the potential to upset every indicator on India, and affect the efficacy and efficiency of all kinds of developmental initiatives.
• Social Justice: In the absence of a Census after 2011, a majority of our country’s population is unable to access several schemes, benefits and services. 
• Women Empowerment: The implementation of the women’s Reservation Act passed in the Parliament last year, reserving 33% of seats in Parliament and Assemblies for women, awaits the conduct of the Census.
• Delimitation of Constituencies: The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act of 2001 was specifically made that requires that constituency boundaries be redrawn only after the first Census conducted after 2026. 
• Clarifications on National Population Register (NPR): The inclusion of the new questions in NPR has been opposed by some States and citizen groups as the NPR is the first step toward compilation of the National Register of Citizens (NRC), according to the Citizenship Rules 2003. 
  • The Centre has however clarified that NPR data will not be used in the preparation of the NRC.
  • The draft form of the NPR for the next Census has questions such as “mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence” — which were not in the NPR of 2011 Census prepared in 2010. 
    • Creation of NPR: To create a comprehensive database of usual residents in the country, the NPR with details of persons usually residing in villages and towns and other rural and urban areas was first prepared in 2010 during the Houselisting and Housing Census phase of Census 2011. 
    • It was updated in 2015 incorporating changes due to birth, death and migration. This process was put through under the Citizenship Act, 1955. 
• On Caste Information: There is growing demand for a caste-based census to be conducted by the Centre to precisely understand the economic well-being of the marginalised communities. 
  • The Centre has to take a call now on whether or not to collect caste information in the next Census.

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Significance of Conducting Census

The Indian Census is the largest single source of a variety of statistical information on different characteristics of the people of India that can be used by researchers and demographers to analyse growth and trends of population and make projections.

• Better Governance: Census data provides policymakers and decision-makers with accurate and reliable information enabling them to formulate effective policies, allocate resources, and plan for various sectors such as education, healthcare, infrastructure, and social welfare.
• Demarcation and Electoral Representation: Census data plays an important role in determining the number of seats and boundaries for electoral constituencies and ensures fair representation and proportional allocation of political power based on population size and distribution.  
• Giving Grants and Resource Allocation: Census data helps in the equitable distribution of resources and services based on population size and demographic basis and helps in determining the allocation of funds for public services like schools, hospitals, roads, and other essential facilities.  
  • The Finance Commission provides grants to the states on the basis of population figures available from the Census data.
  • The Census data helps in understanding social dynamics, identifying disparities, and developing strategies to address social and economic issues.  
  • The census data is also significant for business houses and industries for strengthening and planning their business for penetration into more uncovered areas.
• Monitor Changes: Regular conduct of censuses provide a comprehensive and updated data of population. They help to monitor changes in population growth, fertility rates, mortality rates, migration trends, and other demographic indicators over time. 
• Environmental Aspect: The censuses and surveys are being made available for information and can help to analyse the environment statistics including agriculture, air and climate, energy, environment expenditure, fisheries, water, etc.

Concerns with Delayed Census

The delay in the 2021 Census significantly impacts India’s political and administrative framework, especially the balance of Lok Sabha seats. 

• Delayed Delimitation: The postponement of the census delays the delimitation process, which is crucial for redrawing Lok Sabha constituencies based on the latest population data.
  • The current composition of Lok Sabha is based on the 1971 Census, and further delay continues the use of outdated data, affecting fair representation.
• Imbalanced Representation: States with faster population growth may continue to be underrepresented, while states with slower growth may retain disproportionate representation.
  • Northern states like Uttar Pradesh may gain more seats at the expense of southern states, which have slower population growth rates.
• Increased Socio-Political Tensions: Potential increase in regional disparities and tensions, particularly between northern and southern states, regarding resource allocation and political power.
  • Southern states express concerns over losing political influence due to the reapportionment based on outdated population data.
• Obsolete Policy Frameworks: Policies based on outdated data may not address current demographic realities, leading to inefficiencies.
  • Health and education policies might fail to cater to the actual needs of the population, impacting service delivery and planning.
• Policy and Planning Challenges: Accurate population data is essential for effective policy formulation and implementation of development programs.
  • Delayed census data affects the distribution of funds and resources, impacting programs like the National Food Security Act, which relies on up-to-date population figures.
  • The Union government has to allocate annual Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) funds to each state based on the number of households and labourers. This data is arrived at from the census. However, in the absence of such a number, the Union government allocates funds based on each state government’s expenditure and unspent funds from the previous financial year.

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Action Taken by the Government to Conduct Census at Earliest

To conduct census at earliest after the delay due to COVID-19 pandemic, following actions have been taken:

• Provisions in the 2025-26 Census Budget: It is imperative that sufficient provisions are made in the 2025-26 Census Budget so that the 2021 Census that has been postponed could be held at the earliest, in 2026, on completion of the first phase in 2025 that would include house listing and housing census and updating of the National Population Register (NPR). 
• Conduct of Preliminary Arrangements: The preliminary arrangements for the Census, such as preparing updated maps and lists of administrative areas, pre-testing draft Census questionnaires, training of officers and core staff, who would train the large number of field staff in collecting the Census data digitally, i.e., on mobile app, planning the field work, logistics, budgeting have all been taking place in the Census Directorates in States and Union Territories for the past few years in anticipation of putting through a Census.
• Budgetary allocation: The amount of ₹1,309.46 crore allocated in the 2024-25 budget could be utilised by the Census department to carry out several preliminary activities such as firming up of the enumeration areas, questionnaire finalisation, refresher training of the core staff in the proposed digital census, and tabulation plan.

Way Forward

Expediting the census process is crucial for fair representation in Parliament and effective governance. Following are the few suggested measures that need to be adopted: 

• Need for Digital-first Census: The upcoming Census will also be the first Census both in digital mode and through paper schedules (questionnaires/forms). 
  • The Home Ministry informed the Parliament in December that mobile and web applications for the collection of data and a portal (CMMS) for management and monitoring of various Census-related activities had been developed at a cost of ₹24.84 crore so far.
  • Countries like the US successfully conducted digital censuses during the pandemic.
• Phased Census Approach: The census could be conducted over 1-2 years, starting with urban areas in 2024 and rural areas in 2025. A phased approach allows for better resource allocation and addresses logistical challenges in different regions.
  • Brazil successfully used this phased approach for its 2022 census. 
• Bridge the Gap: Data from surveys like the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and economic surveys should be utilised to inform policy decisions until the full census is conducted. 
  • The National Statistical Commission has recommended that data from multiple surveys be integrated to provide interim insights for policy planning until the census is completed.
• Limited Census with Essential Indicators: There is a need to prioritise collecting data. A limited census focusing on essential indicators could provide crucial data for governance.
• Decentralisation of Census Operations: Empower states to conduct census operations with central coordination to expedite the process. 
  • The Supreme Court in Union of India vs Association for Democratic Reforms (2002) emphasised the importance of decentralisation in governance. 
• Sub-Categorisation: Justice Rohini Commission said that a nationwide socio-economic caste census is necessary to evolve scientific criteria for such sub-categorisation.
  • This would also be necessary for all States, which have their own State-level Other Backward Classes (OBCs) lists, given the wide variety in caste composition.
  • The Rohini Commission was instituted on October 2, 2017 to ensure a more equitable distribution of reservation benefits among the OBCs in India.

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Recently, the government has issued a draft notification to declare over 56,800 square kilometres of the Western Ghats across six states as Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA). 

• The development comes amid massive landslides wreaking havoc in Wayanad, Kerala leading to the deaths of over 300 people.

Crucial Insights on the Proposed Draft

The draft aims to reach an agreement among the six states involved: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, and Gujarat. This issue has been under discussion since 2011.

• Proposal inclusion:
  • Area: Over 56,000 square kilometres across six states will be covered.
    • It Includes 13 villages in Wayanad, Kerala, which recently experienced severe landslides.
  • Restrictions: Mining, quarrying, and sand mining will be banned. Large construction projects will also be limited.
  • Exceptions: Existing homes can be repaired or expanded,  or renovation of existing residential houses in the Eco-sensitive Area but new big buildings are not allowed.
    • The notification also proposes to phase out the existing mines within five years “from the date of issue of the final notification or on the expiry of the existing mining lease, whichever is earlier”. 
• Background of the Draft: The first draft was issued in  March 2014 on the recommendation of the High-Level Working Group (HLWG) formed by the Centre in 2012. 
  • Re-examination of Suggestions: In April 2022, the centre established another panel to check the recommendations from six states. 
    • This panel considered both conservation concerns and developmental aspirations of the region. 
  • Previous Draft: This draft was issued on July 6, 2022. It expired without a consensus between centre and six states on the extent of ESA. 

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About Western Ghats

Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the Western Ghats represents geomorphic features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes.

• Location: Stretches 1,600 km (990 mi) along the western coast of the Indian peninsula.
• Coverage: 160,000 km² (62,000 sq mi) across six states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
• Local Names: 
  • Sahyadri: In Maharashtra 
  • Nilgiri Hills: In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu 
  • Anaimalai Hills and Cardamom Hills: In Kerala
• Formation and Geology:
  • Formation: Created during the break-up of the supercontinent Gondwana in the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods.
  • Geological Evidence: The mountains were formed when India separated from Africa and rose along the west coast.
  • Composition: The Deccan Plateau is made of basalt rocks, influencing the rise of the Western Ghats.
• Topographical Variation: Higher in elevation (average elevation about 1,500 m) and more continuous compared to the Eastern Ghats, with height increasing from north to south.
• Protected Areas in the Western Ghats: Protected Areas Includes two biosphere reserves, 13 National Parks, several wildlife sanctuaries, and many Reserve Forests.
  • Major Protected Areas include Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and Silent Valley National Park
• Passes in Western Ghats:
• • Thal Ghat Pass: Connects Mumbai to Nashik
  • Bhor Ghat Pass: Connects Mumbai to Pune via Khopoli
  • Palakkad Gap (Pal Ghat): Connects Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu to Palakkad, Kerala
  • Amba Ghat Pass: Connects Ratnagiri to Kolhapur
  • Naneghat Pass: Connects Pune with Junnar City
  • Amboli Ghat Pass: Connects Sawantwadi of Maharashtra to Belgaum of Karnataka
• Recognition: Western Ghats was declared as a world heritage site in 2012 by the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).
  • It is one of the eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biological diversity in the world.

Significance of the Western Ghats

The Western Ghats are internationally recognized as a region of immense global importance for the conservation of biological diversity, besides containing areas of high geological, cultural and aesthetic values.

• Hydrological Functions: The Western Ghats perform important hydrological and watershed functions. 
  • It feeds a large number of perennial rivers of peninsular India including the three major eastward-flowing rivers Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. 
  • The peninsular Indian states that receive most of their water supply from rivers originating in the Western Ghats.
• Climatic Role: The mountains of the Western Ghats and their characteristic montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that mediate the warm tropical climate of the region, presenting one of the best examples of the tropical monsoon system on the planet. 
  • The Ghats act as a key barrier, intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer.
  • The Western Ghats include a diversity of ecosystems ranging from tropical wet evergreen forests to montane grasslands. They also include the unique shola ecosystem which consists of montane grasslands interspersed with evergreen forest patches.
  • The Western Ghats play a significant and important ecological function in sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is estimated that they neutralise around 4 million tonnes of carbon every year– around 10% of emissions neutralised by all Indian forests.
  • Hottest Hotspots: The Western Ghats boast exceptionally high biological diversity and endemism, making it one of the world’s eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biodiversity.
• High Biodiversity and Endemicity: Western Ghats along with its geographical extension in the wet zone of Sri Lanka are now also considered one of the eight hottest hotspots of biodiversity.
  • The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.
  • Western Ghats has a high degree of endemism, meaning that species composition from the very north of the mountains to 1,600km south varies greatly. 
  • A number of flagship mammals occur in the property, including parts of the single largest population of globally threatened ‘landscape’ species such as the Asian Elephant, Gaur and Tiger. 
  • Endangered species such as the lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Tahr and Nilgiri Langur are unique to the area.
• Economic Significance: The Western Ghats are rich in iron, manganese and bauxite ores.
  • Its forests are an important source of timber and support a large number of forest-based industries such as paper, plywood, poly-fibres and matchwood.
  • In parts of their ranges Pepper and cardamom, native to the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats have been taken up as plantation crops on a large scale.
  • Other large scale plantations include tea, coffee, oil palm and rubber.
  • There are a number of tourist centres also such as Ooty, Thekkady Wildlife Sanctuary etc. There have been important pilgrimage centres such as Sabarimala in Kerala, Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra, etc.
• Home to Indigenous Tribes: The indigenous people of the Western Ghats, including the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups, constitute 44.2% of the tribal population of 6.95% of Karnataka.
  • Examples: Gowlis, Kunbis, Halakki Vakkala, Kare Vakkala, Kunbi, and Kulvadi Marathi.

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Threats to Western Ghats

The Western Ghats contain exceptional levels of plant and animal diversity and endemicity for a continental area. However, following various threats have been faced by the Western Ghats.

• Susceptibility to Landslides: The unique physiographic-climatic-geological conditions make the western slopes of Western Ghats highly susceptible for the occurrence of frequent and widespread landslides. 
• Mining: Mining activities have grown rapidly especially in Goa and often in violation of all laws, resulting in serious environmental damage and social disruption.
• • Unsustainable mining has increased vulnerability to landslides, damaged water sources and agriculture, and affected the livelihoods of the people living there. 
  • Sand mining has emerged as a major threat in Kerala.
• Livestock Grazing: High livestock grazing within and bordering protected areas is a serious problem causing habitat degradation across the Western Ghats.
• Human-wildlife Conflict: Western Ghats exists within an intensely human-dominated landscape, human-wildlife conflicts are a common phenomenon. 
  • Example: Villagers living close to Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, lose approximately 11% of their annual grain production to raiding elephants annually.
• Extraction of Forest Produce: Human communities living within and adjacent to protected areas in the Western Ghats are often dependent on forest produce to meet their subsistence and commercial needs. 
  • With rising population and changing consumption patterns, it is becoming a critical issue.
• Plantations: Over the years, plantations of cash crops have displaced extensive patches of natural forests throughout the Western Ghats and are frequently associated with encroachment of surrounding forest areas.
  • Plantations owned by private individuals and the corporate sector continue to grow in the Western Ghats, resulting in fragmentation of natural habitat.
• Encroachment by Human Settlements: With rise in population, human settlements both within and outside protected areas represent a significant threat.
• Pollution and Climate Change: The unrestricted use of agrochemicals is causing serious damage to aquatic and forest ecosystems.
  • The changes in land use and deforestation have led to changes in climatic patterns and been considered as a cause of floods in many regions in the recent past.
  • Conversion of forest land into agricultural land or for commercial purposes like tourism, illegal logging for timber have significant effects on Western Ghats.
• Development of Hydropower Projects and Large Dams: Large dam projects in Western Ghats have an adverse impact on the environment and cause social disruption too.

Conservation Efforts for Western Ghats

• Government has taken various measures to conserve biodiversity with the establishment of Protected Area network, tiger reserves and biosphere reserves. Nearly 10% of the total area of Western Ghats is currently covered under protected areas.
  • The government has also taken initiative to demarcate Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) for promotion of environment-friendly and socially inclusive development.

  • Madhav Gadgil Committee (2011):

    • Classification of Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZs): The report proposed classifying 64 percent of the Western Ghats, spread over six states, into three categories – ESZ 1, ESZ 2, and ESZ 3.
    • Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA): The entire Western Ghats region was recommended to be designated as an Ecologically Sensitive Area.
    • Developmental Activities: The report called for a halt to almost all developmental activities like mining, construction of thermal power plants, and dams in ESZ 1. 
    • Bans and Restrictions: Genetically modified crops, plastic bags, Special Economic Zones, new hill stations, and changes in land use from farmland to non-farm land were  to be prohibited. 
      • The diversion of rivers to protect the ecology of the region and conversion of public lands into private lands were also discouraged.
    • Bottom-to-Top Governance: The report suggested a decentralized approach to governance with more power given to local authorities. 
      • It recommended the establishment of a Western Ghats Ecology Authority under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, to manage the region’s ecology and ensure sustainable development.
    • Ban on Single Commercial Crops: The report called for a ban on growing single commercial crops like tea, coffee, cardamom, rubber, banana, and pineapple in the Western Ghats, as they had negative environmental impacts.

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• • Dr. K Kasturirangan Committee (2013):

• • • Reduced Ecologically Sensitive Area: It has designated only 37% of the Western Ghats as ecologically sensitive, which was significantly lower than the 64% suggested by the Gadgil panel.
    • Categorization of Regions: The panel split the Western Ghats into two categories – cultural regions (human settlements) and natural regions (non-human settlements). 
      • It proposed designating cultural lands as an Ecologically Sensitive Area.
    • Categorization of Activities: The report introduced a classification of activities into three categories – red, orange, and green.
      • Red Category: Activities, such as mining, stone quarrying, were recommended to be banned.
      • Orange Category: Activities would be regulated and allowed with appropriate permissions.
      • Green Category: All agricultural, horticultural, and certain commercial activities were allowed.

Way Forward

Following measures have been suggested to protect the Western Ghats from the facing threats:

• Integrated Management Plans: The Government should develop and implement integrated management plans that balance ecological conservation with the developmental needs of the region.
• Enhanced Monitoring: There is a need to strengthen the regulatory framework by enhancing monitoring mechanisms and enforcing existing environmental laws more stringently.
• Improvement of Understanding: There is a need for better understanding of the role of biodiversity in ecosystem functions and related ecosystem services to conserve the Western Ghats.
  • There is also a need to improve the understanding of how human-modified landscapes need to be managed in order to sustain and improve biodiversity conservation.
• Need for Appropriate Policy: Such policy changes need to be promoted that can better manage human-wildlife conflict, can provide financial incentives to further encourage biodiversity-friendly practices and other incentive schemes such as payments for ecosystem services.
• Ban on Illegal Practices: There is a need to ensure that illegal deforestation should be banned, actions need to take care to tackle animal-human conflict and other human actions that impact biodiversity should be kept in check.
• A Collaborative Approach: To maintain the biodiversity of the Western Ghats, a collaborative approach of various stakeholders is required.
  • A balance between conservation efforts and development should be sought and concerned state governments should come to a consensus for implementation of ESA in Western Ghats.

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