Moral Thinkers & Philosophers From India & World: Gandhi, Marx, Plato, Socrates

To prepare for ETHICS for any competitive exam, aspirants have to know about Moral Thinkers & Philosophers from India & World. It gives an idea of all the important topics for the IAS Exam and the Economy syllabus (GS-IV.). Moral Thinkers & Philosophers from India & World terms are important from Ethical perspectives in the UPSC exam. IAS aspirants should thoroughly understand their meaning and application, as questions can be asked from this static portion of the IAS Syllabus in both the UPSC Prelims and the UPSC Mains exams. Even these topics are also highly linked with current affairs. Almost every question asked from them is related to current events. So, apart from standard textbooks, you should rely on newspapers and news analyses as well for these sections. 

This Chapter on Thinkers is very much important in linking both theoretical and practical aspects of ethics. One should integrate into other areas applications. It will provide a valid ground to prove your stand or opinion in answering Ethics questions and case studies. Some of the Tips to write a good answer to quote based questions are:

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• Reading question multiple times to understand basic essence of the quote and identify keywords from the quote and try to attach synonyms to that particular keyword
• Write the same quote in our own words.
• Example: Q. (2018): “Falsehood takes the place of truth when it results in unblemished common good” can be rewritten as Even a lie could be considered as a truth, if that lie is harmless and brings unquestionable benefits.
• Structure of the answer should be: 1) Introduction, 2) Why? with recent illustrations, 3) Applications in daily life and administration, 4) Conclusion

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Moral Thinkers & Philosophers: Exploring the Love of Wisdom and Ethical Inquiry

• Philosophy as a word derived from the Greek word “philosophia” which means love of wisdom. Therefore, philosophy which answers some of the most fundamental questions about life, human existence, rationality, god, religion etc.
• Man as a social animal desires to seek cause-effect relationships and motivates him to question the society where he lives. This kind of questioning and seeking answer ultimately derives truth and knowledge. Philosopher who is a knowledge seeker. Philosophy can be applied to the physical world existing around us and also applied to intangible objects and imaginary things like god, cosmology.

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Minds of Philosophers: Delving into the World of Intellectual Inquiry and Wisdom

The Indian system of philosophy consists of six schools of philosophy called “Shad Darshan”. They are ancient texts of Indian philosophy. 

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1. Samkhya Philosophy: Exploring the Dualism of Matter and Spirit

• Samkhya, (In Sanskrit, “Enumeration” or “Number”) also spelled as Sankhya.
• Samkhya adopts a consistent dualism of matter (prakriti) and the eternal spirit (purusha).
• The two are originally separate, but in the course of evolution purushamistakenly identifies itself with aspects of prakriti.
• Right knowledge consists of the ability of purushato distinguish itself from prakriti.
• The Samkhya school assumes the existence of two bodies, a temporal body and a body of “subtle” matter that persists after biological death.
• When the former body has perished, the latter migrates to another temporal body.
• The body of subtle matter consists of the higher functions of buddhi(“consciousness”), ahamkara (“I-consciousness”), manas (“mind as coordinator of sense impressions”), and prana (“breath,” the principle of vitality).
• Three primal qualities of matter that are called Gunas (“qualities”). They make up the prakritibut are further important principally as physio psychological factors.

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1. 1. The first is Tamas (“darkness”), which is obscurity, ignorance, and inertia
   2. The second is Rajas (“passion”), which is energy, emotion, and expansiveness
   3. The highest is Sattva (“goodness”), which is illumination, enlightening knowledge, and lightness.

• To these correspond personality types:

1. 1. Tamas, that of the ignorant and lazy person
   2. Rajas, that of the impulsive and passionate person
   3. Sattva, that of the enlightened and serene person.

2. Exploring Yoga Philosophy: The Path to Spiritual Liberation

• Yoga, in Sanskrit: “Yoking” or “Union”
• The practical aspects of Yoga play a more important part than does its intellectual content, which is largely based on the philosophy of Samkhya, with the exception that Yoga assumes the existence of God, who is the model for the aspirant who seeks spiritual release.
• Yoga holds with Samkhya that the achievement of spiritual liberation (moksha) occurs when the spirit (purusha) is freed from the bondage of matter (prakriti) that has resulted from ignorance and illusion.
• An aspirant who has learned to control and suppress the obscuring activities of the mind and has succeeded in ending attachment to material objects will be able to enter samadhi —i.e., a state of deep concentration that results in a blissful ecstatic union with the ultimate reality.
• Generally, the Yoga process is described in Eight stages (Ashtanga-yoga, “Eight-membered Yoga”).
• The first two stages are Ethical preparations. They are:

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1. Yama (Restraint), which denotes abstinence from injury (ahimsa), falsehood, stealing, lust, and avarice and
2. Niyama (“discipline”), which denotes cleanliness of body, contentment, austerity, study, and devotion to God.

• The next two stages are physical preparations:

1. Asana (“seat”), a series of exercises in physical posture, is intended to condition the aspirant’s body and make it supple, flexible, and healthy.
2. Pranayama (“breath control”) is a series of exercises intended to stabilize the rhythm of breathing in order to encourage complete respiratory relaxation.

• The fifth stage, (5) Pratyahara (“withdrawal of the senses”), involves control of the senses, or the ability to withdraw the attention of the senses from outward objects.
• The above five stages are external aids to Yoga, the remaining three are purely mental or internal aids.
• (6) Dharana(“holding on”) is the ability to hold and confine awareness of externals to one object for a long period of time (a common exercise is fixing the mind on an object of Meditation, such as the tip of the nose or an image of the deity).
• (7) Dhyana (“concentrated meditation”) is the uninterrupted contemplation of the object of meditation, beyond any memory of ego.
• Samadhi (“total self-collectedness”) is the final stage and is a precondition of attaining release from samsara, or the cycle of rebirth. In this stage the meditator perceives or experiences the object of his meditation and himself as one.

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3. Nyaya Philosophy: Logic and Epistemology

• Nyaya, (Sanskrit: “Rule” or “Method”)
• It is important for its analysis of logic and epistemology.
• The major contribution of the Nyaya system is its working out in profound detail the means of knowledge known as inference.
• Like the other systems, Nyaya is both philosophical and religious.
• Its ultimate concern is to bring an end to human suffering, which results from ignorance of reality. Liberation is brought about through right knowledge. Nyaya is thus concerned with the means of right knowledge.

4. Vaisheshika Philosophy: Naturalism and Entity Classification

• Vaisheshika, (Sanskrit: “Particular”)
• It is significant for its naturalism, a feature that is not characteristic of most Indian thought.
• The Vaisheshika school attempts to identify, inventory, and classify the entities and their relations that present themselves to human perceptions.

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5. Mimamsa Philosophy: Understanding Vedic Interpretation and Ritual Justification

• Mimamsa, (Sanskrit: “Reflection” or “Critical Investigation”)
• Mimamsa, probably the earliest of the six, is fundamental to Vedanta, another of the six systems, and has deeply influenced the formulation of Hindu law
• The aim of Mimamsa is to give rules for the interpretation of the Vedas, the earliest scriptures of Hinduism, and to provide a philosophical justification for the observance of Vedic ritual.
• Because Mimamsa is concerned with the earlier parts of the Vedas, it is also referred to as Purva-Mimamsa (“Prior Study”) or Karma-Mimamsa (“Study of Actions”).
• Vedanta, which deals with the later portion of Vedic literature called the upanishads, is called Uttara-Mimamsa (“Posterior Study”) or Jnana-Mimamsa (“Study of Knowledge”).

6. Vedanta: The Philosophical Culmination of the Vedas

• The term Vedanta means in Sanskrit the “conclusion” (anta) of the Vedas.
• Vedantais the ‘Rationale of all religions’ and without Vedanta, every religion becomes superstition. All history of Indian life is the struggle for the realisation of the ideal of the Vedanta through good or bad fortune.
• Vedanta applies to the Upanishads, which were elaborations of the Vedas, and to the school that arose out of the study (Mimamsa) of the Upanishads. Thus, Vedanta is also referred to as Vedanta Mimamsa (“Reflection on Vedanta”), Uttara Mimamsa (“Reflection on the Latter Part of the Vedas”), and Brahma Mimamsa (“Reflection on Brahman”).

• The three fundamental Vedanta texts are:

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1. Upanishads– Elaborations of the Vedas
2. Brahma-sutras (also called Vedanta-sutras), which are very brief, even one-word interpretations of the doctrine of the Upanishads
3. Bhagavad-Gita(“Song of the Lord”), which, because of its immense popularity, was drawn upon for support of the doctrines found in the Upanishads.

• Several schools of Vedanta developed, differentiated by their conceptions of the nature of the relationship, and the degree of identity, between the eternal core of the individual self (atman) and the absolute (Brahman).
• Those conceptions range from the:

1. Non-dualism (Advita) of the 8th-century philosopher Shankara
2. Vishishtadvita literally, “Qualified Non-dualism” of the 11th–12th-century thinker Ramanuja
3. Dualism (Dvaita) of the 13th-century thinker Madhva.

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Learning Ethics from Ramayana & Mahabharata Characters

Ramayana & Mahabharat, they are not just religious texts but they reflect Ethical issues and Ethical dilemmas in our life. We can find answers from these texts to many questions surrounding our life. They teach us how to live a life and how not to live a life and what is good and what is bad. Let’s look at the characters from them and see what to learn from their characters. 

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Essence of Bhagavad Gita: Key Philosophical Insights

Gita packs an intense analysis of life, emotions and ambitions

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Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Insights from Ancient Political Philosophers

Kautilya, who was the author of Arthashastra, wrote his book in 300 BCE that concentrated more on the Political Economy. Kautilya, was the chief Minister of Chandra Gupta Maurya, who ruled a North Indian State about 300 BCE wrote the book Arthashastra, which literally means Artha = wealth and Sastra = knowledge, “Science of wealth”. In short, a first literary source on political economy where he explained the concept of good governance. 

Philosophers’ Insights: Kautilya’s Governance and Ethics

• King, in the happiness of his subjects lies his happiness, in their welfare his welfare. Anything considers as good only when it’s good to his subjects and shall not consider it as good anything which causes harm to his subjects
• King always accessible and available to his citizens
• He emphasized a code of conduct to the king and his council of ministers. They should not own assets of the people
• Progressive taxation
• In favour of welfare state
• Behavioural aspects of King

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Philosophers on Corruption: Kautilya’s Insights

He talked about corruption in the administration while comparing it to fish, how we can’t prevent a fish from drinking water in the ocean similarly, we can’t prevent a public official from getting corrupt while he deals with public money. However, he didn’t give moral aspects of corruption whether it is good or bad. But he discussed elaborately how to stop corruption. As we are all human beings it’s natural as being selfish so corruption can happen, it can’t be prevented. Here are the four ways we can prevent corruption from happening. 

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Philosophers and Political Governance: Insights from Thirukkural

• Though Kautilya, who was the author of Arthashastra, wrote his book in 300 BCE that book concentrated more on the Political Economy, while his book Thirukkural concentrated more on Political governance, wisdom and Love/sex.
• Thiruvalluvar has given many concepts in Thirukkural regarding king and kingdom which can be correlated with the contemporary concepts of political science like state, government etc.
• Qualities of King: Courage, Liberal hand, Wisdom & energy, Knowledge, Taking strong decisions.
• What a kingdom should and should not have? Complete cultivation, Excessive starvation, Virtuous person, Irremediable epidemics, Merchants with inexhaustible wealth, Destructive foes.
• Components of Kingdom: People, Army, Resources, Ministry, Friendship, Fort.
• Duties of King: Identifying resources, collecting revenue, Protecting revenue, Distribution of revenue.

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Swami Vivekananda: A Pioneer Philosopher of Rationalism and Practical Vedanta

• Swami Vivekananda, disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, was a pioneer of the rationalist movement in India.
• Follower of Vedanta Philosophy. His version of Vedanta is called “Practical Vedanta ” based on Adi Shankar’s Advaita Philosophy.
• He tried to find a scientific account of practical Vedanta. Vivekananda was deeply impressed with western materialism and scientific discoveries. He desired Indian spiritualism plus western materialism for a happier life of a man.

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Gandhiji: Relevance of His Philosophy in Today’s World

• In the first half of the 20th century, Gandhiji led our nation to a successful fight against the then mightiest power with unique tools of love, truth and non-violence.
• However, during the same period, the world faced two World Wars, and the Mahatma himself faced assassin’s bullets. After his death, global society faced many anxious moments – from the Cold War to the 9/11 at the turn of the century and the creation of many flashpoints across the world. At national and international levels there were instances of injustices, apathies, distrusts and disparities despite Gandhi’s message.
• However, his thoughts are still relevant even today. Many world leaders quoted him several times how they got inspiration from his ideology such as Einstein, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King JR, Barack Obama etc.
• So, the struggle persists, but the hope that ‘truth shall prevail’ also persists. If we believe in the continuance of life on this planet, there is no option but to sustain this hope. And this is, perhaps, the essence of Gandhiji’s relevance. Gandhiji’s message is not political alone.
• It is manifested in a holistic manner for the wholesome development of humankind. The politics, sociology, economics and ethics of Satyagraha, Constructive Programme, Trusteeship, Swadeshi and Khadi, basic education, Truth and Nonviolence, eleven vows, peace and sustainability of human society – all contribute to a Gandhian dream of a sane, just and empathetic society.

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Gandhiji’s Philosophical Approach to Politics

• Gandhiji was not a political philosopher. For all his sayings were pouring from his deep feelings and sincere realization of the truth. Without going into disputes, it can be agreed that he was not committed to any exclusive school of thought. His speech and pen had generally come from responses from particular situations. Thus, Gandhi had revised his opinions from time to time though his conceptual framework remained the same. He had not altered from his basics.
• Gandhi’s political thought stems from different traditions, Eastern and Western. Though he had inherited many traditions he had not agreed with any one of them. He had picked up many traditional concepts from his immediate predecessors as well as from ancient texts.
• Gandhi never claimed to be an original thinker. But when we look into all his sayings, we find a conceptual framework, common to a philosopher. Moreover, when we find that his theoretical formulations and practical pursuits are identical, we have every reason to accept him as a philosopher in the Indian sense. But unlike other philosophers and political scientists of both the East and the West, only he could emerge not only as the man of destiny of the nation but also as the man of the millennium.
• For him, politics had encircled him like the coil of a snake. He must wrestle with the snake, there is no respite. He could have thought of avoiding politics, if without politics food and work could be provided to the hungry unemployed people of India. He strongly felt that without involving himself in politics, it is not possible to remove socio-economic exploitation and political subjugation and thereby moral degradation of the people of India unless he involved himself in politics.
• In this perspective, we have to understand Gandhi’s confrontation with the coil of a snake. No matter how tough the task might be, we have to come out from it by wrestling with the snake. This can be successfully performed if we can alleviate the present state of politics to Dharmic politics. By Dharmic, Gandhi meant that it should be removed from corrupting influences and sectarianism. This politics should be the privilege of all. Gandhi was not prepared to accept any fixed dogma or mechanical way for either politics or religion.
• To understand Gandhi’s politics, it is also necessary to understand Gandhi’s concern for the cleavage between state and civil society. Gandhi’s political philosophy integrates the ethical, the moral, and the spiritual into a political way of being that is best suited for India’s transition from colony to independent nation. He believed in Swaraj, self-rule to Indian country men.

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Swaraj: A Philosopher’s Vision for Moral and Civilizational Upliftment

• Swaraj to the poor – Awakening and upliftment of poor
• No majority rule
• Freedom of expression
• Means to achieve swaraj through patience, perseverance, ceaseless toil, courage and intelligent appreciation of the environment.
• Basis in self-sacrifice
• Through Truth and Non violence
• Genius of our civilization – If Swaraj was not meant to civilize us, and to purify and stabilize our civilization, it would be worth nothing. The very essence of our civilization is that we give a paramount place to morality in all our affairs, public or private.

Gandhiji’s Sarvodaya: A Philosopher’s Blueprint for Global Progress

Gandhi’s Economic philosophy based on SARVODAYA, Universal upliftment of all or Progress for all. This is the 21st century, which is the globalisation era. New Economic policy making the world a global village. New challenges and problems coming before the state and humanity like Extremism, Environmental issues, social dichotomy etc. What is happening today, Gandhiji predicted long back in his writings in Hind Swaraj, 1908. Gandhiji put forward four main goals before humanity to resolve contemporary issues. They are,

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• Sarvodaya
• Non-Violence
• Swaraj
• Swadeshi

Sarvodaya aims for Service for Common Welfare. It lays great emphasis on moral and spiritual values. It seeks to create new social and economical values. The concept of possession yields place to the concept of trusteeship. People will work for the good of all and family feeling will animate the entire community. There will be fullest scope for freedom, fellowship and equality. 

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Though, Sarvodaya ideals are Nobles and sacred but they are not work practically as per present political atmosphere is concerned. Politics mainly focus on winning elections than progress of community, Economic values mostly oriented on profit making and crony capitalism, society more and more polarising. As human beings mostly selfish, it’s very difficult to bring change among them. For example, as part of Sarvodaya campaign “Bhoodan movement”, people donated useless land to landless poor. So, need of the present era for youth is ‘Think Globally and Act Locally’. 

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Gandhiji’s Seven Sins: A Philosopher’s Critique of Contemporary Society

Gandhiji in his weekly “Young India” publication mentioned Seven types of sins which destroy us. They are: 

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Jawaharlal Nehru: A Philosopher Statesman of Western Liberalism and Leftist Ideologies

Nehru moulded his ideology mostly from western liberal values like democracy, scientific temper, rationality and Leftist ideologies like Socialism, Marxism. 

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Saint Mother Teresa: A Philosopher of Compassionate Service and Selflessness

Mother Teresa was born in Macedonia. At the age of eighteen she left her parental home and joined an Irish community of nuns with missions in India. 

Her Contributions

• From 1931 to 1948, Mother Teresa taught at St. Mary’s High School in Calcutta, she glimpsed suffering and poverty outside the convent walls which made a deep impression on her. In 1948, she received permission from her superiors to leave the convent school and devote herself to working among the poorest of the poor in the slums of Calcutta.
• Although she had no funds, she depended on Divine Providence, and started an open-air school for slum children. Soon she was joined by voluntary helpers, and financial support was also forthcoming. This made it possible for her to extend the scope of her work.
• She was the founder of “The Missionaries of Charity”, whose primary task was to love and care for those persons nobody was prepared to look after.
• She is known for her selfless service, will power, compassion towards people suffering with various kinds of issues.
• Her compassion towards leprosy patients, AIDS/HIV people commendable.
• For her service she was awarded with the Nobel Peace prize.
• The Holy Catholic Church of Vatican recognised her with sainthood.

Amartya Sen: A Philosopher Economist of Welfare and Social Justice

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• Amartya Sen, an economist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory and for his interest in the problems of society’s poorest members.
• Sen was best known for his work on the causes of famine, which led to the development of practical solutions for preventing or limiting the effects of real or perceived shortages of food.

CONTRIBUTIONS: 

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WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS

Socrates: The Father of Western Philosophy and the Ethical Questionnaire

• Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, and as being the first moral philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of thought.
• He grew up during the golden age of Pericles’ Athens, served with distinction as a soldier, but became best known as a questioner of everything and everyone.
• His style of teaching – Famously known as the Socratic method – involved not conveying knowledge, but rather asking question after clarifying question until his students arrived at their own understanding. He wrote nothing himself, so all that is known about him is filtered through the writings of a few contemporaries and followers, most notably his student Plato.
• Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and sentenced to death. Choosing not to flee, he spent his final days in the company of his friends before drinking the executioner’s cup of poisonous hemlock.

Virtue based approach – Most important virtue for human beings as per Socrates is knowledge. [Jainism – Right faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct] 

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ETHICAL THOUGHTS OF SOCRATES:

A) Ethical Musings of Socrates: Virtue Ethics and the Pursuit of Self-Improvement

• Virtue ethics primarily concerned with helping one person become a better person through self-improvement. Virtue ethics requires us to understand how to transform ourselves into better people. That means we have to understand what is moral, how to be motivated to be moral, and how to actually behave morally.
• Socrates thought that knowledge is virtue, and virtue leads to happiness. It makes sense to think that moral people know what morality is. If you know right from wrong, then you might be able to choose to do what you know to be right.
• It also makes some sense to suspect that our beliefs about right and wrong influence our decisions. If we believe it’s right to help a drowning child, then it would be fairly shocking to decide not to do so—and it would be less surprising when we decide to help the child.
• Virtue always leads to happiness. Criminals commit crimes that hurt others. However, helping others can make us happy, so doing the right thing might be more fulfilling than committing crimes.
• Socrates proposed “unity of the virtues” – if you have one virtue, then you have them all. Courage requires wisdom, wisdom requires moderation (e.g. appropriate eating habits), and moderation requires courage. Socrates argued that all virtues are a sort of wisdom, but it isn’t clear that one sort of wisdom would require all sorts of wisdom.
• Example, I don’t know anything about programming computers, but that doesn’t seem to make me less virtuous. However, Socrates might have envisioned a person with an ideal virtue (such as ideal courage) that would require us to possess all other virtues assuming that there will be at least one situation when one virtue requires another.
• Example, Courage to feel the pain of someone’s withdrawal symptoms after becoming addicted to cigarettes.

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B) Ethical Intellectualism: Socratic Perspectives on Reason, Virtue, and Happiness

Socrates pre-supposes reason is essential for a good life.

• One’s true happiness is promoted by doing what is right.
• When your true utility is served (by tending your soul), you are achieving happiness. Happiness is evident only in terms of a long-term effect on the soul.
• Human action aims toward the good in accordance with purpose in nature.

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Socrates states no one chooses evil; no one chooses to act in ignorance.

• We seek the good, but fail to achieve it by ignorance or lack of knowledge as to how to obtain what is good.
• He believes no one would intentionally harm themselves. When harm comes to us, although we thought we were seeking the good, the good is not obtained in such a case since we lacked knowledge as to how best to achieve the good.

To summarize Socrates ethics, he offers three argument in favour of the just life over the unjust life:

1. The just man is wise and good, and the unjust man is ignorant and bad
2. Injustice produces internal disharmony which prevents effective actions
3. Virtue is excellence at a thing’s function and the just person lives a happier life than the unjust person, since he performs the various functions of the human soul well

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Plato: Philosopher of Ideal States and Virtuous Souls

• Plato was born in 427/428 BCE and belonged to an aristocratic family in Athens, a Greek City State. He was a disciple of Socrates who was one of the foremost philosophers of Greece.
• During his time there was great chaos in the political life of Athens. This resulted in the Athenian government condemning Socrates to death because of his teachings. This greatly affected Plato’s views on politics especially in Athens.
• In about 387 BCE Plato founded his ‘Academy’. The name ‘Academy’ comes from the name of a famous Athenian hero called ‘Akademos’. Here Plato taught Political Philosophy which contained politics, ethics, mathematics and sociology.
• The three most important works of Plato are ‘The Republic’, ‘The Statesman’ and ‘The Laws’. Apart from these works, he has written a number of other smaller books.

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FOUR CARDINAL VIRTUES (MORAL UNIVERSALISM):

Plato identifies four cardinal virtues that are necessary for a happy individual and a good society. He also believed that an ideal state should have people with these virtues.

1. Prudence – prudence is the right reason in action. It plays a vital role in terms of guiding and regulating all other virtues.
2. Temperance – is a strength that protects against excess and consists of self-regulation and obedience to authority. It suggests harmony among conflicting elements.
3. Courage – courage is bravery to do justice. It removes obstacles that come in the path of justice.
4. Justice – Different philosophers have different idea of justice

Plato’s Philosophical Vision: The Ideal State, Justice, and Virtue

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The Just Man’s Happiness: Plato’s Argument for Justice Leading to Greater Pleasure

• Plato in his book “THE REPUBLIC” explained how a just life is more pleasurable than the unjust life commentary by Socrates.
• Socrates argues that the just life is more pleasurable than the unjust life. The view is not that pleasure is good and that just life is happier because it has more pleasure. It is that the just life is happier and that it also has more pleasure than the unjust life.
• Socrates gives two proofs of this conclusion. The first is that there is pleasure inside and that the praise of wisdom shows that that the life of reason is the “sweetest“. Another proof that he describes as the “greatest and most decisive overthrow” for the just man against the unjust man.
• In this proof of the conclusion that the just life is more pleasurable, a part of the inner consciousness get its “truest” pleasures when the objects of its desires are “most proper” to it, that when reason rules, all three parts get their “truest” pleasures because the knowledge in the part with reason directs action, and that when either the appetitive or spirited part rules, the three parts do not get their “truest” pleasures.
• Therefore, to make just life happier, three parts: Reason, spirit and appetite should be in perfect synchronization and balanced.
• The just life, then, not only is first in “happiness” it is also more pleasurable than the unjust life. So, in both ways the just life is better than the unjust life.
• Plato, though by no means the first philosopher, undoubtedly is one of the earliest to leave us a significant body of work. He spent most of his time asking and providing answers to questions that have always troubled people. Even centuries after his death, if we think of politics and the problems of living together, the issues that confront us again and again very often involve the sorts of questions that Plato’s Republic can help us think about in a more focused and sophisticated way. Hence, Plato is considered the most influential political philosopher of all times.

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Aristotle: The Philosopher of Practical Politics

Aristotle was a student of Plato studied at Plato’s Academy in Athens. He is considered as an encyclopedia of Political philosophy. After Plato’s death Aristotle started his own teaching program. Alexander is one of his disciples. Unlike Plato who proposed “Ideal State” but Aristotle proposed “Best Practicable State”. 

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Aristotle’s Philosophy: Virtue Ethics, Statecraft, and Human Flourishing

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Thus, Aristotle is still considered one of the greatest thinkers in politics, psychology and ethics. His intellectual range was vast covering most of the sciences and many of the arts. His works have laid the foundation of centuries of philosophy. Even after the intellectual revolution of the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian concepts remain embedded in world philosophy. Therefore, he is undoubtedly one of the most influential philosophers of all time. 

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Karl Marx: Revolutionary Philosopher

Karl Marx is one of the few people who changed the way we see the world. For Marx, any theory should not only support in understanding the world around, but be a step towards transforming the world. His works – Communist Manifesto, Materialistic Conception of History and Das Kapital, are a culmination of various economic ideas, channeled towards the single goal of self- emancipation of the working class. He touched upon capitalism, socialism and communalism. 

Some of the works and thoughts of Philosopher Karl Marx 

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Comparing Gandhi and Marx: Philosophical Perspectives

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QUOTES:

• There is a limited amount of power in society, which can only be held by one person or group at a time.
• The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle
• Democracy is the road to socialism

Marx argues that the nature of that class struggle varies according to the nature of production. Hence in feudal societies, where the main form of production was agriculture, the class struggle was between those who owned the land and those who worked on it. In a modern industry, the struggle is between the bourgeoisie (factory or business owners) and the proletariat (workers in the factory). In reality the society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other – bourgeoisie and proletariat. It is in this premise that Marx said that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle”. 

Marx summarized his contributions into three major sections:

1. Classes (proletariat and bourgeoisie) are not a permanent feature of a society
2. Class struggle leads to ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’, resulting in workers taking control of production
3. ‘Dictatorship of the proletariat’ would lead to classless society and with the differences vanishing from the society, the state eventually withers away.

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Marxism is like a religion. The impact that Marxism had on humanity can only be compared to the influence religion had on mankind. Nearly half of the world population was influenced by Marxist ideology. While Marx himself would have not followed everything he wrote, his writings did influence leaders like Lenin, Stalin, Mao and others who used Marxist theories in order to bring about change in countries like Russia, China, Cuba, Vietnam, etc. In the present era, most of the erstwhile communist countries have become democratic in nature. However, society continues to witness class differences and it is increasing every year. Hence, so long there are capitalists and exploitation in the society, Marx’s ideas can never be ignored or forgotten. 

Philosopher: Understanding Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism means “Greatest good to the greatest number of people”. Human actions are based on maximizing his/her utility in a given situation so that humans can survive. It’s purely based on cost benefit analysis.
• Two moral philosophical thinkers Jeremy Bentham and JS Mill, who’s theories framed on utilitarian principle.

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Philosopher: John Stuart Mill’s Ethical Altruism

• J S Mill was a most influential English Philosopher. He was a Naturalist, Utilitarian and respected liberal values.

MILL’S NATURALISM

• Mill’s general picture of mind and world is established by appealing to what we are warranted in believing about the nature of those objects, human beings are wholly part of nature. Philosophical basis of environmental ethics derived from his Naturalism. This earth belongs to everyone and every species has a right to live on this planet. Just because human greed can’t harm the other species.

MILL’S UTILITARIANISM

• He believes that Human actions should not only bring happiness to individuals but also to society.
• It will benefit more than losses. Greatest happiness to the greatest number of people through human actions. This is also called Social utilitarianism.
• So, good for an individual and good for society too. A good act was one that would increase the general prevalence of pleasure over pain in the whole of society. It could thus be construed as a form of Ethical altruism.

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MILL’S ON LIBERTY

• Mill’s “On Liberty“, predicted that among all his works, this was destined to survive the longest and it has. The transformation of society from aristocratic to democratic forms of organization brought with it both advantages and disadvantages. It meant rule by social masses that would be more powerful, uniform and omnipresent than the rulers of previous eras.
• Mill expressed that such powers could have the capacity of stifling conformism in thought, character and action.
• Mill’s principle on liberty states that “the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection”
• Thus, the practical philosophy of this argument by Mill is primarily utilitarian. In his ‘On Liberty’ Mill puts forward different strategies to argue for freedom of thought and discussion, character, and action. On the one hand Mill argues for freedom of space for individuals which individuals should have to develop their own character while on the other, he maintains that it is best for society too.
• “Human nature is not a machine to be built after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree, which requires to grow and develop itself on all sides, according to the tendency of the inward forces which make it a living thing”
• Mill was of the opinion that mass society is self-repressive in nature which would lead to the sapping of human energy and potential. It is important for society to create conditions where individuals can develop their own ways of living. This will enable variety and diversity of character and culture which will become the engine of productive tension that will drive a nation forward. Mill’s insistence throughout On Liberty, sought to preserve the individual’s freedom against the possibility of legislative or state coercion and also from the deceptive forms of social coercion.

John Stuart Mill occupies a very important place in the history of political thought and Naturalism which was widespread in the nineteenth century. His works emphasized the importance of human nature for the proper study and understanding of the state. He developed his own philosophy of franchise. 

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Mill states that casting one’s vote is as necessary for the political animal as is the air that he or she breathes. No other political thinker has been as emphatic as Mill in the conception of voting. The influences that utilitarianism had on Mill also were important in the formulation of his ideas on the principle of economy and that of representative government where the freedom of the individual to develop his capabilities should be never interfered with. On each of these subjects Mill was often provocative that no student of the discipline can afford to ignore.

Philosopher: Jeremy Bentham’s Ethical Egoism

• Bentham was also a Utilitarian who defined Happiness from the perspective of Society. Individuals fulfill their pleasures for the benefit of society which is called Ethical Egoism. Because, Individuals satisfy their ego needs which brings more pleasure than pain which is considered as Ethical.
• According to him, People should be given individual liberty to satisfy their ego needs. Once Individual pleasures satisfy it benefits the society by self-development.
• Any action considered as good which maximises the society benefits.

PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY

• According to Bentham, pleasure and pain govern not only how human beings act, but also how human beings ought to act. Such acts are based on the principle of utility or the principle of utilitarianism: “Greatest happiness (pleasure) for the greatest number of persons (the community)”.
• For Bentham, motives can only be considered good or bad based on their results of being productive of happiness or unhappiness.

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Philosopher: Immanuel Kant and Deontological Ethics

• Immanuel Kant was one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Kant’s comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy.
• He belongs to the Deontological school of ethics where means and ends both are important.
• For him:

KANT’S “CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE”:

• It’s a way of evaluating motivations for our actions. Kant defined it as the supreme principle of morality that is rationality.
• He characterized it as an objective, rationally necessary and unconditional principle that we must always follow despite any natural desires or inclinations we may have to the contrary. Any human action can be justified through this principle.
• Any immoral action can be called immoral because it violates this principle. This rationality can be discoverable through practical reason.
• This rationality can also be considered as autonomous or free. The fundamental principle of morality, Categorical imperative is none other than the law of an autonomous will.

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Philosopher: Immanuel Kant and the Categorical Imperative

• Kant states that act to treat humanity, whether yourself or another, as an end-in-itself and never as a means and we are never to treat others merely as a means to an end, but we are to treat others as an end in themselves.
• People are not to be used unjustifiably in order to obtain your goals or seek an edge or unfair advantage. People have rights which would supersede, for example, the tyranny of the majority in utilitarianism.

Philosopher: Immanuel Kant and the Concept of Good Will

• The good will is the only good without qualification, i.e. the only intrinsic good. Kant describes the good will as a will that acts from duty as a “good-in-itself.”
• According to Kant, important considerations about duty are emphasized as:
• The class of actions in accordance with duty must be distinguished from the class of actions performed from duty.
• Kant believes only actions performed from duty have moral worth.
• For Kant, all moral actions are actions in accordance with practical reason.
• The purpose of the action is not the duty itself, per se, but instead the intention or motivation of acting ethically. For example, saving a stranger in distress is the aim of an action done from the intention of doing one’s duty.
• Performing one’s duty, then, is not the purpose or goal of the morally worthy action—the purpose is to help the stranger in distress.
• This principle is very much applicable to civil services when they are in an ethical dilemma regarding Duty. A duty with moral worth always treated as Goodwill.

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Philosopher: Immanuel Kant and Duty-Based Ethics

• Duty-based ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the consequences of their actions.
• Do the right thing.
• Do it because it’s the right thing to do.
• Don’t do wrong things.
• Avoid them because they are wrong.
• Kantian duty-based ethics says that some things should never be done, no matter what good consequences they produce. This seems to reflect the way some human beings think. People have a duty to do the right thing, even if it produces a bad result.
• Kant thought that it would be wrong to tell a lie in order to save a friend from a murderer. Its universalisation of Ethics. Sometimes we may have to lie with good intentions, that is “Moral Absolutism”, in that case Kant’s universal duty ethics can’t work. Different situations demand different approaches, universalization can’t work every time and everywhere.

Though Kant was criticized for his Moral absolutism. However, his deontological approach is relevant in the present day context in developing scientific temper, rationality with reason and duty ethics in work etc. 

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Philosopher: John Rawls and Social Justice Theory

• Justice has been interpreted in many ways since ancient history. In ancient civilisations, Dharma was a justice. For the king, Justice to his people was punishing the wrong doers.
• Socrates and Plato interpreted justice as lies equally in both state and humans, ideal justice which questions authority. The idea that justice involves giving each person his due continues to be an important part of our present day understanding of justice.
• Today, our understanding of justice is that according to Kant, All human beings’ possess human dignity. If all persons are granted dignity, they have the opportunity to develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals. Justice requires that we give due and equal consideration to all individuals.

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Philosopher: John Rawls and Social Justice Theory

• In A Theory of Justice, John Rawls provides a Contract Theory of the principles of social justice in terms of the ‘basic structure of society, or the way in which the major social institutions distribute fundamental rights and duties to determine the division of advantages from social cooperation’.
• The distributive justice (Social and Economic justice) proposed by Rawls is underpinned by two fundamental principles:

1. The first principle is the idea that people’s liberties should be preserved in distribution.
2. The second principle is the idea that any inequality that is permitted should only be permitted on the basis that it benefits the least favored in society.

• John Rawls argues that the only way we can arrive at a fair and just rule is if we imagine ourselves to be in a situation in which we have to make decisions about how society should be organised although we don’t know which position we would ourselves occupy in that society.
• We don’t know what kind of family we would be born into, rich or poor and what caste we would belong to, upper caste or lower caste. We will be likely to support a decision about the rules and organisation of that future society which would be fair for all the members.

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Philosopher: John Rawls and the Veil of Ignorance

• Rawls tried to put such a thing under this principle. A situation of complete ignorance about our possible position and status in society, each person would decide in the way they generally do in terms of their own interests.
• The advantage of the veil of ignorance is that it expects people to just be rational. But the veil of ignorance is the first step in arriving at a system of fair laws and policies. A rational being looks at society as a whole instead of self-interest.
• Since we don’t know our future position in society, each will seek rules that protect them in case they happen to be in the worst off situation. Things go hand in hand. At the same time, chosen policies do not make better off sections get weaker. Therefore, it would be in the interest of society as a whole to benefit from the rules and regulations. Such fairness would be the outcome of rational action, not benevolence or generosity.
• Therefore, Rawls argues that its rationality and not morality could lead us to a fair and just society and decides how to distribute the benefits and burdens.

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OTHER PHILOPHER’S THOUGHTS RELEVANT TO ETHICS

1. Thomas Aquinas: The Philosopher and the Four Levels of Laws

THOUGHTS:

• Four levels of Laws: According to him the source for laws comes from God/religion.

1. Eternal Law
2. Divine Law
3. Natural Laws which is moral law
4. Human Law

• If there is conflict between natural law and human law, it should always be preferred, which is ethical and moral in nature.

AREA OF APPLICATION:

Environmental Ethics, Human rights, Ethical dilemma regarding morality vs legality

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2. Thomas Hobbes: The Philosopher on Human Nature and the State

THOUGHTS:

• In Hobbes’ words human beings are driven by their passions and use their intellectual capacity simply as a means to determine what will bring them the greatest pleasure or the least pain. human nature as utterly self-interested and self-regarding. Hence innately anti-social.
• The state is the result of a contract between human beings in which the scope and extent of the powers of the government are to be determined by an analysis of the terms of the contract. The state is created by mutual agreement or the consent of its members. As a result, the government is legitimate if it corresponds to what people have consented to.
• According to Hobbes, Law can be:
• Moral: Fundamental rights, DPSP
• Immoral: Capital punishment
• Amoral: Neither moral nor immoral – AFSPA

“To do unto others before they do unto you” 

AREA OF APPLICATION:

• Human Nature and Conflict between Law Vs Ethics

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3. John Locke: The Philosopher of Human Reason and Natural Rights

THOUGHTS:

• Reason as the factor which shapes a rational human being. He is also particular in reflecting the utilitarian trait of humans. Humans seek to strike a balance of pleasure over pain. It is this notion of pleasure or utility which forms the basis of his covenant.
• State of nature is a state of peace, goodwill, mutual assistance and preservation. Natural law is considered to be the source of both rights and duties
• Locke identifies the three fundamental demerits which threaten the balance of state of nature.

1. The absence of a legal framework.
2. The lack of a “known and impartial judge
3. The requirement of an executive agency for the enforcement of decisions

AREA OF APPLICATION:

• Human Nature

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4. Epicurus: The Philosopher of Tranquil Happiness

THOUGHTS:

Real happiness is possible only through peace of mind when they overcome a sense of fear. 

AREA OF APPLICATION:

Courage of conviction and Happiness

5. Machiavelli: The Political Realist

THOUGHTS:

• According to him, it is not a practical policy for the prince to follow the principles of religion and ethics in his statecraft. Politics is governed by its own independent standards; hence it cannot be bound by the conventional ethical standards. According to him the ruler should be honest, righteous and true to his word, but in reality, nobody can have all these qualities and these qualities will not enable a ruler to rule over vicious people. So, the Prince should focus on the preservation of the State without being bound by moral obligations.
• Machiavelli does not contend that ‘ends justify the means’ but he claims that a ruler’s success will be judged by popular verdict, and that he will be excused for using dubious means if he is successful in the end

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AREA OF APPLICATION:

• Separation of Morals from Politics

6. Jean Jacques Rousseau: Critique of Social Contract

• Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a slave than they are.

AREA OF APPLICATION:

• Ethical nature of the state

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