Post-Civil Disobedience Movement: Different Stages & Post-Resignation Events

Introduction

After the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement, a two-phase discussion unfolded regarding the future strategy of the nationalists. The First stage after the Civil Disobedience Movement involved deliberations on the direction the national movement should pursue in the immediate future, particularly during the period of non-mass struggle (1934–35). The Second stage, occurring in 1937, focused on the acceptance of office in the context of provincial elections under the autonomy provisions outlined in the Government of India Act, 1935.

The First Stage Debate

• The three perspectives were put forward after the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Constructive Work on Gandhian Lines
  • This stage emphasized the need for constructive activities aligned with Gandhian principles after the Civil Disobedience Movement.
  • Focused on social reforms, rural upliftment, and constructive programs like Khadi and village industries.
  • Aimed to strengthen self-reliance and grassroots empowerment.
• Constitutional Struggle and Participation in Elections
  • Supporter: M.A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Bhulabhai Desai, S. Satyamurthy, B.C. Roy, and others.
  • Approach: Proposed engagement in the electoral process despite the political apathy.
    • Viewed participation in elections and council work as a means to sustain political interest and morale.
    • Argued that involvement in councils didn’t imply faith in constitutional politics but aimed to bolster Congress and prepare the masses for the next phase.
• Leftist Trend Critical of Constructive Work and Council Entry
• • Supporters: Represented by leaders like Nehru within the Congress.
  • Challenging the Distractions: Criticized both constructive work and council entry for diverting attention from the struggle against colonialism.
  • Approach: Advocated for the resumption of non-constitutionalist mass struggle.
    • Believed that the economic crisis and readiness of the masses to fight made the situation revolutionary, emphasizing the need for continued mass action after the Civil Disobedience Movement. 

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• Acceptance of Council Entry
  • Initially critical of council entry, Nehru eventually accepted it when Gandhi acceded to the demand for entry into legislatures without compromising with imperialism.
  • Gandhi assured that council work wouldn’t lead to constitutionalism or self-serving motives.
  • In May 1934, the All India Congress Committee (AICC) convened in Patna with the objective of establishing a Parliamentary Board dedicated to participating in elections under the Congress banner.
• Gandhi’s Resignation       
  • Gandhi realized his differences with powerful Congress factions favouring parliamentary politics, intellectuals, and socialists led by Nehru.
  • In October 1934, Gandhi resigned from Congress to serve it better in thought, word, and deed due to fundamental disagreements.
  • Nehru and socialists believed in gradually radicalizing Congress for an anti-imperialist struggle while still maintaining unity as the principal anti-imperialist mass organization.
• Electoral Success and Congress Accommodation
• • In the November 1934 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly, Congress secured 45 out of 75 seats reserved for Indians, showcasing its electoral strength.
  • Despite internal differences, various factions within Congress accommodated differing views to maintain the party’s unity and mass appeal. 

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The Government of India Act, 1935

• All India Federation: It was to comprise all British Indian provinces, all chief commissioner’s provinces, and the Indian states (princely states). Contingent on specific conditions related to the inclusion of princely states and their population, but never materialized.

Federal Level

• Executive: The Governor General held pivotal authority.
  • Subjects categorized as reserved and transferred, administered differently. 
• Reserved Subjects: Foreign affairs, defence, tribal areas, and ecclesiastical affairs were to be exclusively administered by the governor general on the advice of executive councillors.
  • Executive councillors were not to be responsible to the central legislature.
• Transferred Subjects: All other subjects, administered by the governor general on the advice of ministers elected by the legislature. 
  • These ministers were to be responsible to the federal legislature and were to resign on losing the confidence of the body.
  • The Governor-general could act in his individual judgment in the discharge of his special responsibilities after the Civil Disobedience Movement.                    
• Legislature: 
  • Bicameral setup with an upper house (Council of States) 260-member [partly directly elected from British Indian provinces and partly (40 per cent) nominated by the princes] and a lower house (Federal Assembly) 375-member house [partly indirectly elected from British Indian provinces and partly (one-third) nominated by the princes].
  • The Council of States was to be a permanent body with one-third members retiring every third year. 
  • The duration of the assembly was to be 5 years.
  • Lists for Legislation: federal, provincial, and concurrent.
  • Members of the Federal Assembly could move a vote of no-confidence against ministers. The Council of States could not move a vote of no-confidence.
  • The system of religion-based and class-based electorates was further extended.
  • 80 % of the budget was non-votable.
• The Governor General had residuary powers. He could (a) restore cuts in grants; (b) certify bills rejected by the legislature; (c) issue ordinances; and (d) exercise his veto. [UPSC 2018]

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Provincial level

• Provincial Autonomy: Replaced dyarchy, granting provinces separate legal identities and financial powers Provincial governments could borrow money on their own security.
• Executive
  • The governor was to be the Crown’s nominee and representative and could take over and indefinitely run administration.
  • Governor was to have special powers regarding minorities, rights of civil servants, law and order, British business interests, partially excluded areas, princely states, etc.
• Legislature
  • Separate electorates based on Communal Award were to be made operational.
  • All members were to be directly elected. Franchise was extended; women got the right on the same basis as men. [UPSC 2021]
  • Ministers were to administer all provincial subjects in a council of ministers headed by a premier.
  • Ministers were made answerable to and removable by the adverse vote of the legislature.
  • Provincial legislature could legislate on subjects in provincial and concurrent lists.
  • 40 percent of the budget was still not votable.
  • The Governor could (a) refuse assent to a bill; (b) promulgate ordinances; (c) enact Governor’s Acts.
• Evaluation and British Strategy
  • The Governor’s extensive powers acted as hindrances.
  • Enfranchised 14% of the British Indian population.
  • The extension of communal electorates led to separatist tendencies, contributing to eventual partition.
  • The Act lacked provisions for internal growth, with amendment rights reserved with the British Parliament
• Nationalists’ Response
  • Congress unanimously rejected the Act, demanding a Constituent Assembly based on adult franchise to frame an independent India’s constitution.
  • The Hindu Mahasabha and the National Liberal Foundation, however, declared themselves in favour of the working of the 1935 Act in the central as well as at the provincial level.
  • Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the Act as a vehicle with brakes and no engine, emphasizing its limitations.
  • B.R. Tomlinson highlighted that the constitutional advance in India aimed to attract Indian collaborators for British rule.

Second Stage Debate within the Congress

• In early 1937, discussions arose among nationalists regarding the strategy for the upcoming provincial assembly elections. 
• There was unanimous opposition to the 1935 Act, but there was uncertainty on how to resist it without a mass movement.
• The Congress aimed to contest elections with a comprehensive program, but disagreement emerged on whether to form a government if the Congress secured a majority, marking the ideological split between left and right factions.
• Divided Opinion
  • Nehru, Bose, and Congress socialists opposed office acceptance, fearing it would compromise rejection of the 1935 Act. 
  • Office acceptance proponents argued for short-term tactical work in legislatures, given the absence of a mass movement option. They contended that the capture or rejection of office was a matter of strategy, not socialism.
• Gandhi’s Position
• • Initially opposed office acceptance but agreed to trial formation of Congress ministries.
  • In the Lucknow session of early 1936 and the Faizpur session of late 1937, the Congress resolved to participate in elections and deferred the decision on office acceptance until after the elections. 

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Congress Rule in Provinces

• Work Under Congress Ministries
  • Generated enthusiasm among the people; showcased Congress’s ability to wield state power for public benefit.
  • Increased Congress’s prestige by demonstrating leadership and governance.
  • Inability to fundamentally change the imperialist nature of the system or introduce radical reforms due to structural constraints.
  • Efforts for People’s Welfare: Civil Liberties
  • Repealed laws granting emergency powers.
  • Lifted bans on illegal organizations like Hindustan Seva Dal and Youth Leagues, and on specific books/journals.
  • Relaxed press restrictions, and removed newspapers from blacklists.
  • Restored confiscated arms and licenses, curbed police powers, and stopped CID surveillance on politicians.
  • Released political prisoners, and revoked deportation/internment orders.
  • Restored confiscated lands in Bombay and pensions of officials associated with the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Shortcomings in Civil Liberties
  • Arrest of Yusuf Maherally for inflammatory speeches (Madras government).
  • Arrest of S.S. Batliwala for seditious speech and a subsequent six-month sentence (Madras government).
  • Use of CID against communists and leftists by K.M. Munshi, the Bombay home minister.
• Agrarian Reforms under Congress Ministries: Constraints faced by Congress ministries in a complete overhaul of the agrarian structure due to:
  • Limited powers of ministries.
  • Inadequate financial resources due to government appropriation.
  • The strategy of class adjustments to conciliate and neutralize zamindars.
  • Time constraints due to Congress’ confrontational politics with colonialism.
  • Looming war clouds from 1938.
  • Influence of reactionary Legislative Council dominated by landlords and capitalists.
  • Complexity of agrarian structure.
• Despite Constraints, Congress ministries legislated on
  • Land reforms, debt relief, forest grazing fee, rent arrears, land tenures.
  • Main benefits to statutory and occupancy tenants, less for sub-tenants and agricultural laborers.
• Attitude Towards Labour
  • Approach focused on advancing worker’s interests while promoting industrial peace.
  • Advocated compulsory arbitration before strikes.
  • Mediation between labour and capital by ministries.
  • Used Section 144 and arrests in instances of militant trade union protests.
  • Nehru expressed discontent with repressive measures but publicly supported the ministries.
  • Gandhi opposed violent methods, stressed political education, and cautioned against excessive reliance on colonial laws and machinery.
• Social Welfare Reforms under Congress Initiatives
  • Prohibition in specific regions.
  • Welfare measures for Harijans: Temple entry, access to public facilities, scholarships, increased representation in government service and police.
  • Focus on primary, technical, and higher education, public health, and sanitation.
  • Support for khadi through subsidies and other initiatives.
  • Prison reforms implemented.
  • Promotion of indigenous enterprises.
  • Establishment of the National Planning Committee in 1938 under Subhas Chandra Bose for planning efforts.
• Extra-Parliamentary Mass Activity by Congress
• • After the Civil Disobedience Movement Mass literacy campaigns were initiated.
  • Formation of Congress police stations and panchayats.
  • Congress Grievance Committees presenting mass petitions to the government.
  • State peoples’ movements advocating for various causes.

Post-Resignation Events

• Congress’s resignation in October 1939 after the outbreak of World War II.
• Increased industrial unrest in regions like Bombay, Gujarat, United Provinces, and Bengal after Congress’ victory in elections.
• A perceived anti-labor shift in Congress attitudes leading to the Bombay Traders Disputes Act in 1938.
• Dilemma faced by Congress on support for the Praja Mandal movement in princely states.
• All India Muslim League’s discontent with Congress led to the establishment of the Pirpur Committee in 1938.
• Pirpur Committee: Accused Congress ministries for religious interference, language imposition, and economic oppression of Muslims.
• Realization by Congress that meeting all population expectations while in power was challenging.

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Conclusion

• Following the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement, Indian nationalists engaged in a two-phase discussion to determine the future course of action.
• Subsequently, in 1937, attention shifted to the acceptance of office in provincial elections under the autonomy provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935. This marked a significant milestone in India’s political landscape, with Congress leaders assuming governmental responsibilities.
• However, the outbreak of World War II in 1939 disrupted these developments and posed new challenges to the nationalist movement after the Civil Disobedience Movement.