Canada and the United States emerged at the end of the eighteenth century. In the following century, both nations significantly expanded their territories. The USA acquired land through purchases (such as the Louisiana Purchase from France and Alaska from Russia) and wars (gaining territory from Mexico). 

Native consent was not sought in these acquisitions, and the shifting western frontier displaced indigenous peoples.

European Migration and Agricultural Transformations in North America

Migration for Land: European migrants, including younger sons without inheritance and later waves from various European countries, sought land ownership. 

• Agricultural Expansion: They introduced new crops like rice and cotton for profit, leading to the extinction of predators like wolves and mountain lions. 
• Barbed Wire Innovation: The invention of barbed wire in 1873 enhanced property security.
• Southern Plantations and African Slavery: In the southern region, the hot climate made outdoor labor impractical for Europeans. To meet the labor demand, plantation owners imported African slaves. 
• Anti Slavery Movement: Although the slave trade was banned due to anti-slavery protests, those already in the USA remained enslaved. 
  • The northern states which did not depend on plantations, advocated for abolition. 
• The Civil War (1861 to 1865) led to the victory of the abolitionists, resulting in the end of slavery.
• Political Evolution in Canada:  In Canada, the challenge was to address the demands of French settlers for political autonomy after British victory in 1763. 
  • This issue persisted until 1867 when Canada was restructured as a confederation of autonomous states, resolving the problem of political autonomy while sidelining the native question.

The Native Peoples Lose their Land

Injustices and Deception: As the United States expanded its settlements, the indigenous peoples were either coerced or compelled to move, often through the signing of treaties that undervalued their land. 

• In many instances, the Americans (European people of the USA) cheated them by taking more land or paying less than promised.

• Cherokee Struggle for Citizenship: Despite the Cherokee tribe’s extensive efforts to adapt to the American way of life, they were denied citizenship rights in Georgia. 
  • In 1832, Chief Justice John Marshall proclaimed that the Cherokees were a distinct community with sovereignty over their territory, challenging the state’s authority over them. 
  • However, US President Andrew Jackson refused to abide by this judgment, leading to the forced eviction of the Cherokees to the Great American Desert along the “Trail of Tears,” where over a quarter of them died.
  • They criticized their traditional way of life, lack of interest in English or European attire, and argued that they deserved to “die out.”
• Indigenous Resistance and Subjugation: The natives were repeatedly pushed westward, forced to share land with other tribes, and confined to reservations often unrelated to their heritage.
  • In response to this encroachment, indigenous peoples resisted. The US army quashed numerous uprisings between 1865 and 1890, while Canada faced armed revolts between 1869 and 1885. However, their resistance ultimately waned in the face of overwhelming forces.

The Gold Rush, and the Growth of Industries

Gold Rush of the 1840s: In the 1840s, the discovery of gold in California triggered the famous ‘Gold Rush,’ drawing thousands of European prospectors to the United States in hopes of striking it rich.

• Transcontinental Railways: This led to the construction of transcontinental railways, with thousands of Chinese laborers recruited to aid in the ambitious project. 
  • As one industrialist, Andrew Carnegie noted the speed of progress in the young Republic outpaced that of the older nations.
• Divergent Roots: While the Industrial Revolution in England was partly driven by peasants losing their land to large farmers, North American industries developed for different reasons.
  • They aimed to manufacture railway equipment for efficient transportation and machinery to facilitate large-scale farming. 
  • Consequently, industrial towns and factories grew in both the USA and Canada. 
• Rise of the USA’s Economy: By 1860, the USA was an underdeveloped economy, but by 1890, it had risen to become the world’s leading industrial power.

• • Simultaneously, large-scale agriculture expanded, with vast areas cleared and divided into farms.
  • The bison, which had sustained native peoples for centuries, were nearly exterminated by 1890.
• Manifest Destiny Fulfilled: The USA’s continental expansion was completed in 1892, as the area between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans was divided into states. 

• Imperial Expansion Beyond the Frontier: With no more ‘frontier’ to attract European settlers, the USA soon ventured into establishing its own colonies, notably in Hawaii and the Philippines, marking its transition into an imperial power.

Constitutional Rights

Democracy’s Founding Flame: The democratic spirit that fueled the American settlers’ fight for independence in the 1770s became integral to the identity of the United States, setting it apart from the monarchies and aristocracies of the Old World. 

• Safeguarding Individual Property: Equally significant was their constitution’s inclusion of the individual’s ‘right to property,’ shielded from state interference.
• Exclusivity in Early Democracy: However, it’s essential to recognize that these democratic rights, such as voting for representatives in Congress and the President, as well as the right to property, were exclusively reserved for white men. 
• Thomas Paine’s Vision: Thomas Paine, a prominent advocate of democracy during the American War for Independence and the French Revolution, drew inspiration from Native Americans as models of how society could be organized.
• Daniel Paul’s Perspective: In this context, Canadian native Daniel Paul highlighted in 2000 that Paine believed the Native Americans’ example sowed the seeds for the gradual movement towards democracy by the people of Europe, emphasizing the profound impact of Native American societies on the evolving concept of democracy.

The Winds of Change…

Delayed Progress: It wasn’t until the 1920s that conditions began to improve for the native peoples of the USA and Canada. 

• The Crisis Exposed: The Problem of Indian Administration, a survey about American Indians by social scientist Lewis Meriam and published in 1928, revealed the dire state of health and education facilities for those residing in reservations.
• The Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934: White Americans expressed sympathy for the natives who were grappling with cultural suppression and the denial of citizenship benefits. 
  • This empathy culminated in a transformative law in the USA—the Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934. 
• Empowering Indigenous Communities: This act granted natives in reservations the right to purchase land and access loans.

• Assimilation Resistance: During the 1950s and 1960s, the US and Canadian governments ended all special provisions for native populations with the expectation that they would assimilate into mainstream European culture. However, the natives resisted this assimilation. 
• Declaration of Indian Rights (1954): In 1954, in their ‘Declaration of Indian Rights,’ several native groups accepted US citizenship on the condition that their reservations and traditions would remain intact. 
• Canadian Indigenous Rights Struggle: In 1969, the Canadian government announced its refusal to acknowledge aboriginal rights, prompting an organized opposition by the native communities. 
  • The issue persisted until 1982 when the Constitution Act officially recognized the existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the natives. 
• Triumph of Cultural and Land Rights: Today, it is evident that the native peoples of both countries have successfully asserted their rights to their cultures and, particularly in Canada, to their sacred lands—in a way their ancestors could not have achieved in the 1880s.

Conclusion

The 19th century marked a period of intense expansion and transformation for both Canada and the USA. From the acquisition of new lands and the rise of industries to the push for indigenous rights, this era laid the foundation for the modern North American landscape and its socio-political complexities.