Sociology: Social Realities through Scientific Methods

Sociology as a discipline deals with subjects that are familiar to everyone, such as social groups, institutions, norms, and relationships. However, sociology is a scientific discipline that places great emphasis on method – the procedures used to gather knowledge. Unlike casual observations, sociologists aim to delve into the lived experiences of people.

In this chapter, we will study sociological research methods and will explore the systematic processes that sociologists employ to investigate, understand, and analyze various aspects of social life.

Objectivity and Subjectivity in Sociology: Challenges  of Objectivity in Sociology

• Objective vs. Subjective: In everyday language, ‘objective’ means unbiased and fact-based, while ‘subjective’ refers to individual values and preferences.
• Striving for Objectivity: Sciences aim for objectivity in sociology, but it’s more challenging in social sciences compared to natural sciences.
  • Example: Geologists and botanists must avoid personal biases when studying rocks or plants, reporting facts impartially. 
  • They must report the facts as they are.
• Unraveling Bias Challenges: However, social scientists study the social world they inhabit, leading to bias challenges.
  • Because sociologists are also members of society, they face bias issues due to their societal roles and personal experiences. 
  • Even without direct experience, societal values and prejudices can influence their work.

How do sociologists ensure objectivity in sociology? – Methods and Reflection

• Embracing Self-Reflexivity: Sociologists employ self-reflexivity, where they continuously assess their own ideas and emotions regarding their research topic.
• Adopting an Outsider’s Lens: They strive to view their work from an outsider’s perspective, examining themselves and their research through others’ eyes.
• Fostering Perspective Diversity: This approach promotes the conscious adoption of different viewpoints, particularly those of their research subjects.
• Transparent Research Practices: An essential aspect of reflexivity involves meticulous documentation. By documenting all procedures and formally citing sources of evidence, researchers demonstrate the transparency of their methods.
  • This practice allows others to replicate their process, and validate their conclusions and enable self-checking and refinement of their own thinking and arguments.

Challenges to Objectivity in Sociology: Embracing Diversity

• Navigating Subjectivity: In sociology, achieving objectivity in sociology faces several challenges due to the inherent subjectivity of the social world.
• Diverse Realities: Different perspectives exist, leading to multiple interpretations of reality. 
  • Example:  Notions of “good” prices or “good” food can vary significantly among individuals.
• Embracing Pluralism: Sociology aims to understand people’s beliefs and their reasons rather than determine a single correct interpretation.
  • Sociology itself comprises various conflicting schools of thought, making it a multi-paradigmatic science. 
  • These competing perspectives coexist within the discipline.
• Beyond Absolute objectivity in sociology: Consequently, the traditional concept of absolute objectivity in sociology is considered outdated. 
  • Social scientists no longer believe in the possibility of an “objective, disinterested” social science, as it can be misleading.
  • Instead, objectivity in sociology is seen as an ongoing, continuous process, not a definitive endpoint.
  • While it is challenging, sociology still offers valuable knowledge, and objectivity in sociology is a goal that requires perpetual refinement.

Field Work In Social Anthropology: Armchair to Fieldwork

The Evolution of Social Anthropology: Armchair to Fieldwork Shift

• The Era of Armchair Anthropology: Early anthropology was marked by the work of amateur enthusiasts who were fascinated by exotic primitive cultures. 
  • These early anthropologists, often referred to as “armchair scholars,” gathered and organised information about distant communities they had never visited themselves.
  • Dependency on Secondhand Accounts: They relied on reports and descriptions provided by travellers, missionaries, colonial administrators, soldiers, and others who had direct experience “on the spot.”
  • Example: James Frazer’s influential work, “The Golden Bough,” and Emile Durkheim’s research on primitive religion were entirely based on second-hand accounts.
• Transition from Armchair Speculation to Fieldwork: However, towards the late 19th century and the early 20th century, new anthropologists began conducting surveys in first-hand observations of tribal languages, customs, rituals, and beliefs.
  • Firsthand Observations in Anthropology: This shift marked a departure from reliance on second-hand accounts and was seen as more scholarly.
  • The success of first-hand fieldwork played a crucial role in solidifying this transition in anthropological methodology.

Understanding Communities through Census and Genealogy: Census, Mapping, and Genealogy

• The Dominance of Participant Observation: Since the 1920s, participant observation or fieldwork has been a fundamental aspect of social anthropological training and the primary method for knowledge production in the discipline.
•  Role of Comprehensive Census: Social anthropologists typically begin fieldwork by conducting a comprehensive census of the community under study. 
  • This involves creating a detailed list of all community members, including information on sex, age groups, and family relationships.
• Methodical Mapping: They may also attempt to map the physical layout of the village or settlement, identifying the locations of houses and other socially significant sites.
• Constructing Community Genealogies: One crucial technique employed by anthropologists is the construction of a genealogy for the community. 
  • This genealogy goes beyond the census data, as it involves creating a family tree for individual members and tracing their lineage as far back as possible.
  • Example: Researchers inquire about a person’s relatives in their own generation, their parents’ generations, grandparents, and so on. 
    • This information is cross-checked with other relatives to create a detailed family tree.
• Kinship Unveiled: This exercise helps social anthropologists gain insights into the community’s kinship system, the roles played by different relatives in individuals’ lives, and how these relationships are maintained.