The Decline of the Mughals and the Emergence of Regional Powers

Introduction

The powerful Mughals began to decline in the first half of the eighteenth century. The reign of   Aurangzeb (1658–1707) marked the beginning of the end of Mughal authority in India.  Later, during Muhammad Shah‘s rule, the independent states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab were established. The Marathas started to push for the succession to the imperial throne as several regional chiefs started to declare their independence.

Challenges Before The Mughals 

• External Challenges
  • Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738-39): Defeated Mughal Army in Battle of Karnal (1739) and captured Muhammad Shah (Mughal Ruler). 
    • The Peacock Throne, the Kohinoor diamond and multiple valuable items were taken away from the Mughals. 
    • Nadir Shah gained the strategically important Mughal territory to the west of the Indus including Kabul. 
    • Thus, India once again became vulnerable to the attacks from the north-west.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions 
  • Delhi was captured in 1757 and an Afghan caretaker took reins to watch over the Mughal Emperor.
  • Abdali recognised Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor and Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla chief) as the Mir Bakhshi who was to act as agent of Abdali.
  • The Third Battle of Panipat, 1761 saw Abdali come back to India and defeated the Marathas who had taken control of Delhi under the leadership of Raghunath Rao.
• Weak rulers after the death of Aurangzeb 
• • Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712): Also known as ’Shah-i-Bekhabar’ 
    • Pacific Policy: He adopted a pacific policy with the Marathas, the Rajputs and the Jats.
    • Later, Sikh leader Banda Bahadur rose up in revolt. 
  • Jahandar Shah (1712-13)
    • Became emperor with the help of Zulfikar Khan, who was later appointed as prime minister. 
    • Izara System: He instituted the Izara system to strengthen the empire’s finances. 
    • Jahandar Shah abolished Jaziya.
  • Farrukhsiyar (1713-1718)
    • He came to power as a result of killing Jahandar Shah with the help of the Sayyid Brothers (Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali), who later became Wazir & Mir Bakshi in his court.
    • Religious Tolerance: He followed a policy of religious tolerance as seen in steps like abolishing Jaziya and pilgrimage tax
    • Aided the ascent of the British unknowingly by granting them Farmans of 1717.
  • Later in 1719, the Sayyid Brothers dethroned Farrukhsiyar with the help of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath. 
    • Thus, Farrukhsiyar became the first Mughal emperor to be killed by his nobles.
  • Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719): He had the shortest reign amongst all Mughal rulers 
  • Rafi-ud-Daula (1719): Took the title ‘Shah Jahan II’.  
    • He was placed on the throne by the Sayyid Brothers, who had concentrated power over themselves.
  • Muhammad Shah Rangeela (1719-48)
    • He killed the Sayyid Brothers by taking the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk, who later founded the independent state of Hyderabad.
    • Faced defeat by Nadir Shah in the Battle of Karnal (1739) and was later imprisoned.
  • Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754)
    • Seen as an incompetent ruler who left the state affairs in the hands of Udham Bai, the ‘Queen Mother’. 
    • Udham Bai was given the title of ‘Qibla-i-Alam’ later. 
  • Alamgir II (1754-1759) 
    • He was a son of Emperor Jahandar Shah. 
    • Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Iranian invader, reached Delhi in January 1757. During his reign, the Battle of Plassey was fought in June 1757. 
    • Alamgir II was assassinated.
  • Shah Alam II (1760-1806)
    • His reign saw two decisive battles i.e. Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and the Battle of Buxar (1764)
    • Treaty of Allahabad (1765) was signed after the Battle of Buxar in which following terms were imposed, He issued a farman granting rights of Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English and He was taken under English protection, and he got a pension by the English.
  • Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)
    • He gave the title of ‘Raja’ to Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
    • In 1835: The East India Company ceased to refer to itself as the Mughal emperor’s subject and ceased producing coins bearing the emperor’s name.
  • Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857): The Last Mughal Emperor.
    • He was declared as the ‘Emperor of India’ during the Revolt of 1857
    • Later, he was captured by the English and sent to Rangoon.

Enroll now for UPSC Online Course

Rise of Regional States

Hyderabad

• Founding of the Nizam Dynasty: Founded by Kilich Khan, who was popularly known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. 
  • He served as a Wazir under the Mughal empire earlier, but later he grew disillusioned
• Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724): Kilich Khan defeats the Mughal Viceroy of Deccan and assumes control. 
  • He becomes viceroy and confers on himself the title of ‘Asaf-Jah’.
• Awadh: Founded by Saadat Khan, who was popularly known as Burhan-ul-Mulk. 
  • Saadat Khan committed suicide due to pressure from Nadir Shah, who was demanding a huge booty from him. 
  • He was succeeded by Safdar Jang as the Nawab of Awadh.

Bengal

• Founder: Founded by Murshid Quli Khan who was later succeeded by his son Shuja-ud-din. 
• Independence from Mughal: Later Alivardi Khan assumed power and made the kingdom independent of the Mughal empire by giving yearly tribute

Mysore 

• It was ruled by Wodeyar Kings initially, Haider Ali assumed power and was involved in constant warfare with the British.

Kerala

• Kerala became a sovereign state under Martanda Varma, with its capital as Travancore. 
• He took some actions to advance his state and attempted to organize his army according to Western principles.

The Jats

• In 1669, Gokula led the first major rebellion against the Mughals in Mathura. However, this did not succeed. 
• Later, Churaman and Badan Singh successfully established the kingdom of Bharatpur. 
• The most remarkable Jat leader was Suraj Mal, who expanded territories to include Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh. Post Suraj Mal, the Jat state split into small principalities. 

Enroll now forUPSC Online Classes

The Sikhs 

• Under Reign of Aurangzeb
  • The ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was detained and put to death by Aurangzeb in 1675 because he had refused to accept Islam.
  • The successor to Guru Tegh Bahadur, Guru Gobind Singh, openly opposed Aurangzeb. 
    • In order to protect their rights and religion, he turned the Sikhs into a violent group. 
    • Later, in 1708, Banda Bahadur became the Sikhs’ leader, but he was killed in battle.
• Establishment of the Sikh Kingdom
• • Ranjit Singh established a strong Sikh kingdom comprising 12 misls (confederacies) in the Punjab region. 
  • He was the son of Sukarchakiya misl leader Mahan Singh. 
  • The territory spanning from the Sutlej to the Jhelum was brought under control by Ranjit Singh. 
  • Later, he took control of Amritsar in 1802, and Lahore in 1799. 
  • Ranjit Singh recognized the British authority over the Cis-Sutlej territories by signing the Treaty of Amritsar with the British.
  • However, as his reign came to an end, the English compelled him to sign the Tripartite Treaty in 1838 with Shah Shuja and the English Company, in which he consented to allow the British troops to pass through Punjab.

The Marathas 

• Led by Peshwas, they emerged as the most formidable opponents to the Mughal rule. 
• They claimed the right to be chief inheritors of the Mughal dominion.
• However, they lost to Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat and could never attain the same geographical expanse under their rule.

Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad

• Rohilkhand kingdom was founded by Ali Muhammad Khan after Nadir Shah’s invasion weakened the Mughals.
• Farrukhabad kingdom was set up by Mohammad Khan Bangash, an Afghan, in the area to the east of Delhi.

Key features of the Regional States 

• Most acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire in name and some continued to pay tribute to it.
• Regional polity Emerged: in these states wherein provincial rulers had to take interest in local interests to maintain stability.
• Failure to Develop a System: based on sound financial, administrative, and military organization limited their growth. 
• Constant Warfare: Among neighbouring regional powers weakened all of these kingdoms to the extent that no one was able to fill in the power vacuum on an All India level after the Mughals
• The Jagirdari Crisis: Intensified due to further decline in agricultural income and an increase in Mansabdars looking for Jagirs.

Enroll now for UPSC Online Coaching

Developments in Art, Architecture and Culture 

• Bara Imambara was built by Asaf-ud-Daula in Lucknow. 
• Sawai Jai Singh built the pink city of Jaipur. 
  • He also built five astronomical observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura and Ujjain. 
  • Lastly, he devised Jij Muhammad-shahi which was a set of timetables to help people study astronomy. 
• In Kerala, Padmanabhapuram Palace was constructed. 

Language & Literature

• Urdu Language and Poetry: grew in the 18th century. Famous Urdu poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir and Mirza Ghalib (in the 19th century) helped in mainstreaming Urdu. 
• Malayalam literature: Travancore Rulers supported Malayalam literature by helping poets like Kunchan Nambiar.
• Sittar Poetry: In Tamil language also grew by poets like Tayumanavar (1706-44).
• Punjabi Literature: Warris Shah wrote the romantic epic Heer Ranjha. 
• Risalo: One of the most famous poems in Sindhi literature is Risalo, written by Shah Abdul Latif in the same period. 

Conclusion

• The subcontinent was characterized by a diverse array of rulers, each governing their respective regions with varying degrees of authority. 
• After the decline of the Mughal Empire, Regional powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and various princely states emerged. While some rulers sought to expand their territories and influence, others struggled to maintain stability amid internal conflicts and external threats. 
• This era marked a transitional phase in Indian history, setting the stage for the British colonisation that would significantly reshape the socio-political fabric of the subcontinent.