The tribal groups in British India experienced profound changes during colonial rule. Forced displacement, exploitation of resources, and imposition of alien systems disrupted their traditional way of life. This period witnessed a struggle for autonomy, preservation of cultural identity, and resistance against oppressive colonial policies, shaping their socio-economic landscape significantly.

Different economic-Cultural Practices of Tribes

Jhum Cultivators :They practiced shifting cultivation, primarily in forests which involved cutting treetops, burning vegetation, and using ash as fertilizer. 

• Continuous Movement: They moved to new fields after harvesting a crop and free movement in forests was crucial for their survival.
• Hunters and Gatherers:This group depended on hunting and gathering forest produce for survival.

• Examples: The Khonds lived in Orissa forests, they hunted collectively, and depended heavily on forest resources. 
• Exchange of Goods: Bought or exchanged goods when forest resources were insufficient; some took up labour jobs.
• Baigas: Lived in central India were reluctant labourers, preferring to rely on the forest.
• Debt Trap: Many tribals fell into debt due to high-interest loans from moneylenders.
• Herders:These were pastoral tribal groups which moved with cattle, sheep, or goats seasonally. 
• Examples: Van Gujjars, Labadis, Gaddis, and Bakarwals.
• Settled Cultivators: Some tribal communities began settled cultivation and started using ploughs and established rights over lands.
• Power Hierarchy: As the land often belonged to clans; power hierarchies emerged within clans.
• Civilized Group: Settled tribal groups like Gonds and Santhals were considered more civilised than others by the British.

Impact of Colonial Rule on Tribal Lives

On Tribal Chiefs: Before the British colonisation, tribal chiefs held pivotal roles in their communities, possessing economic and administrative power. 

• Loss of Influence: With the advent of British rule, although these chiefs retained some land rights, their administrative influence waned. 
• British Subject: They were subjected to British officials, obligated to pay tributes, and lost their traditional stature and sway within their tribes.
• On Shifting Cultivators:The British favoured a sedentary cultivation system for easier administration and consistent revenue generation. 
• Taxes on Land: They executed land settlements to categorise and levy taxes on the land. 
• Not Effective: Yet, their endeavours to transform jhum (shifting) cultivators into settled farmers were largely ineffective. 
• Fixed Cultivation: These cultivators faced challenges in fixed cultivation, and due to protests, the British eventually permitted some jhum cultivation in certain forest regions.
• Forest Laws and their Impact:British colonial rule declared forests as state assets, thereby limiting tribal freedoms and traditional rights within them. 
• Livelihood Problems: This curtailment significantly impacted the tribal lifestyle, forcing many to seek new homes and livelihoods. 
• Minor Forest Produce: However, the British, needing labour for forest tasks, allocated minor forest tracts to tribes. 
• Conditional Support: This came with conditions that tribes were to provide labour and aid in forest upkeep. 
• Resistance: These changes faced substantial resistance from tribes, leading to notable revolts and demonstrations.
• The Problem with Trade:
  • Repercussions for Tribes:The intrusion of traders and money-lenders into tribal territories had profound economic repercussions for the tribes. 
  • Example: Although Silk was in high demand in European markets, tribal silk growers received a pittance from middlemen who reaped enormous profits.
  • Emergence of Market System: These tribal producers were undercompensated for their cocoons, which were resold at elevated prices, leading many tribes to view traders and the emerging market system with deep scepticism.

The Search for Work

Economic Disruption: The colonial period witnessed a surge in industries such as tea plantations and mining, leading to economic upheaval among tribal communities.

• Exploitative Labor Practices:Tribals, enticed by job prospects, often confronted exploitation as they were poorly compensated and frequently denied their rights, including the return to their ancestral homes.
• Cultural Transformation:British colonial rule brought about significant disruptions in the tribal way of life, altering their economic, social, and cultural fabric.
• Legal Challenges:Tribes grappled with changing land and forest legislations, facing hurdles in preserving their traditional territories.
• Trade Exploitation:Tribals faced exploitation in trade, further exacerbating the challenges imposed by the colonial regime.
• Employment Struggles:Seeking just employment opportunities became a formidable challenge for tribal communities amidst the changes brought about by British colonial rule.

Tribal Rebellions in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Major Tribal Revolts

• Kols Rebellion (1831-32): The Kols, a tribal community, staged a significant rebellion in 1831-32 against external intrusions and oppressions.
• Santhal Uprising (1855): In 1855, the Santhals, one of the largest tribal communities in India, rose in revolt against the exploitation by moneylenders and landlords.
• Bastar Rebellion (1910): The tribal communities of Bastar region came forward in 1910 to protest against British policies and interventions in their homeland.
• Warli Revolt (1940): The Warli community in Maharashtra initiated a revolt in 1940, challenging the ongoing land injustices and exploitations by landlords.

Birsa Munda: A Beacon of Tribal Resistance

Early Life: Birsa was born in the mid-1870s. The challenging economic circumstances of his family led them to migrate frequently. 

• Cultural Strength: Growing up, tales of previous Munda uprisings and the call for revolt against the dikus influenced him.
• Education and Influences:Birsa attended a missionary school, learning about Christianity.
• Vaishnav Preaching: He also spent time with a Vaishnav preacher, adopting specific Hindu customs and rituals.
• Birsa’s Vision and Movement:Birsa sought to reform tribal society. He emphasised giving up alcohol, the importance of cleanliness, and urged Mundas to abandon witchcraft beliefs.
• Opposition to Outsiders: Despite his reformist approach, Birsa criticised external entities such as missionaries and Hindu landlords. He viewed them as threats to the Munda way of life.
• Revolt and Its Implications:
  • Call to Action: In 1895, Birsa inspired his community to reclaim their past, highlighting a golden age, the satyug.
  • British Concerns: The colonial government grew wary of Birsa’s movement due to its political implications. He envisioned the ousting of all oppressive forces and the establishment of a Munda Raj.
  • Arrest and Mobilisation: The British arrested Birsa in 1895. However, post his release in 1897, he galvanised his followers, urging them to overthrow oppressive symbols.
• Legacy and Impact:
  • Demise: Birsa passed away in 1900 from cholera, leading to the movement’s decline.
  • Significance: His efforts, though, had lasting impacts. 
  • Legislative Processes: They compelled the British to introduce protective laws for tribal lands. 
  • Psychological Benefit: Moreover, his movement underscored the tribal communities’ resilience and capability to challenge and resist colonial rule.

Conclusion

Colonial rule disrupted tribal societies in India. Shifting cultivators, forest restrictions, and exploitative trade squeezed their livelihoods. Birsa Munda’s rebellion exemplified tribal resistance, leading to protective legislation but highlighting the ongoing struggle for tribal rights.