In historical Europe, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were fragmented into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons, each under the rule of autonomous leaders. Meanwhile, Eastern and Central Europe were governed by autocratic monarchies, hosting a mix of diverse peoples within their territories.

Aristocracy and New Middle Class

Aristocratic Dominance: In social and political realms, the Aristocracy held undisputed dominance across the continent.

• Nature of Society: A significant portion of the population is peasantry, which dominates the landscape. 
  • Meanwhile, in the latter half of the 18th century, industrialization took root in England.
• Rise of New Social Classes: Society witnessed the rise of the new working class and the middle class, composed of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.

Liberal Nationalism

Meaning: The term liberalism derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.

• Limited Voting Rights: Only property-owning men had right to vote and get elected, men without property and all women were excluded.
• Origin: Initiated by Prussia in 1834, a customs union, known as Zollverein, was formed and embraced by the majority of German states.
  • The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
• Integration: Creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification.

New Conservatism after 1815

Meaning: Conservatives believed in preserving traditional institutions: monarchy, church, social hierarchies, property, and family.

• European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism after 1815.
• Conservative Revivalism in Europe: To empower autocratic European monarchies, focusing on a modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic economy, and elimination of feudalism and serfdom was essential.
• Vienna Congress: During 1815, diplomats representing major European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria – convened in Vienna to establish a comprehensive settlement for Europe.
• Restoration of Bourbon Monarchy: The Bourbon dynasty regained power, leading to France losing the territories annexed under Napoleon’s rule.
• Rise of Liberalism: Liberal nationalists opposed the conservative order, focusing on press freedom.

The Revolutionaries

Emergence of Secret Societies: In 1815, secret societies sprouted across European states, dedicated to training revolutionaries and propagating their ideologies.

• Revolutionary Ideals: The revolutionaries stood against monarchical systems, championing the ideals of liberty and freedom.
• Mazzini and Young Italy: Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, established two underground societies, first being Young Italy in Marseilles.
  • After that, Giuseppe Mazzini started Young Europe in Berne. 
  • He brought together young guys from Poland, France, Italy, and Germany who believed in the same things. 

Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

July Revolution: In July 1830, liberal revolutionaries overthrew Bourbon Kings in France, establishing a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.

• Belgium Independence: Following the July Revolution, Brussels erupted in an uprising, resulting in Belgium’s secession from the United Kingdom of Netherlands.
• Greek War of Independence: In 1821, the Greeks waged a determined struggle for their independence.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Culture shaped the idea of the nation through art, poetry, stories, and music, expressing and moulding nationalist feelings.

• Romanticism: A captivating cultural wave, ignited a unique and passionate form of love for one’s nation, leaving an indelible mark on society.
• Language: It also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
  • After the Russian occupation, Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
• Polish Rebellion: In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. 

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

Europe faced economic hardships in the 1830s. During the first half of the 19th century, Europe underwent a substantial population increase.

• Inflationary Food Prices: The escalation of food prices and adverse harvests resulted in pervasive pauperism across urban centres and rural areas.
• Social Unrest: In 1848, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.

The Revolution of the Liberals: 1848

Demand for LIberal Nation-State: Members of the liberal middle class pushed for a nation-state governed by parliamentary principles, including a constitution, freedom of the press, and association.

•  A revolution led by the educated middle classes was underway in 1848.
• Frankfurt Parliament: A substantial number of political associations assembled in Frankfurt to participate in the election of an all-German National Assembly.
• • On May 18, 1848, a group of 831 elected representatives marched to the Church of St Paul, convening for Frankfurt parliament.
  • Middle Class and women played significant roles in the Parliament.

• Constitution for Germany: Constitution drafted for the German nation was headed by a monarchy, subject to a Parliament.
  • Friedrich Wilhelm IV rejected the Crown, aligning with other monarchs against the elected assembly.
• Women’s Political Activism: Women established their political associations, founded newspapers, and actively participated in political events, yet regrettably, suffrage rights were denied to them during Assembly elections.
• Limited Reforms: Following 1848, Central and Eastern European autocratic monarchies indeed adopted changes akin to those in Western Europe before 1815.
  • Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.

Conclusion

19th century Europe witnessed the rise of new social classes, birth of nationalist ideas, and eruption of revolutions. While the quest for liberal nation-states and social reforms gained momentum, conservative forces often prevailed, resulting in limited changes. The seeds of modern Europe were sown during this tumultuous era, shaping the political landscape for centuries to come.