In India, just like in other colonies, progression of modern nationalism is evident. Nationalism is closely tied to the movement against colonialism. Individuals started to realize their solidarity while facing challenges. involving the practice of colonialism. The feeling of being subjugated during colonial rule established a common connection that bound several diverse groups. However, every class and group experienced the impacts of colonialism in varying ways, and their beliefs about freedom differed and were not consistently identical. Mahatma Gandhi led Congress in attempting to unite these groups under one movement. 

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

Economic Burden: War led to a huge increase in defense expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and income tax was introduced.

• Fuelling Anger: Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
• Human Cost: Crop failure leading to a shortage of food, and an influenza epidemic further aggravated the situation.
  • Census of 1921:  12 to 13 million people perished because of famines and epidemics.

The Idea of Satyagraha

Gandhi’s Return to India: In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi, After spending significant time in South Africa, fighting against racist regime with a novel method of mass agitation returned to India.

• Philosophy of Satyagraha: It emphasized power of truth and need to search for truth. 
  • It suggested that if cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
  • Without seeking vengeance or being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence.
  • Gandhi’s Belief: Dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.
• Satyagraha Experiments: In 1917 Gandhi travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
  • In 1917, he organised a satyagraha to support peasants of Kheda district of Gujarat.
    • Peasants of Kheda could not pay revenue and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed because they were affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic. 
  • In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organize a satyagraha movement among cotton mill workers.

The Rowlatt Act

Purpose of Act: It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

• Launch of Rowlatt Satyagraha: In 1919, Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha in protest against the proposed Rowlatt Act.
• Amritsar Massacre: Fearing rising nationalist sentiments,  British government decided to suppress movement. 
  • On April 10th, in Amritsar, police opened fire on a peaceful procession, sparking widespread attacks on institutions such as banks, post offices, and railway stations. 
  • Martial law was imposed, and General Dyer assumed command.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: On April 13, 1919, where a few people came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures, while some came to attend annual Baisakhi fair. 
  • General Dyer, by blocking all exits, fired upon the crowd, causing numerous casualties. 
  • It leads to strikes, clashes with police, and attacks on government buildings. 
  • Consequently, Mahatma Gandhi made difficult decision to halt the movement to prevent further violence. 
• Khilafat Movement: Gandhi, recognizing Khilafat issue’s significance, brought Hindus and Muslims together after World War I’s conclusion with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. 
  • The formation of the Khilafat Committee in Bombay in 1919 propelled Gandhi and fellow leaders to initiate a non-cooperation movement in 1920, advocating for both Khilafat and Swaraj.

Need for Non-Cooperation 

British Rule and Indian Collaboration: As per Mahatma Gandhi’s perspective, British rule in India was established with cooperation of various Indian leaders and communities, leading to complex socio-political dynamics during that era.

• Stages of Action: The non-cooperation movement is meticulously planned in stages. 
  • It initiates with the symbolic act of surrendering government titles, signifying a rejection of colonial honours. 
  • Following this, a widespread boycott ensues, encompassing civil services, military institutions, law enforcement agencies, judicial bodies, legislative councils, educational institutions, and imported goods, representing a united stand against British rule. 
• Implementation of NCM: Amidst numerous challenges and extensive campaigning efforts, a fierce battle of words and ideologies ensued between the supporters and opponents of the Non-Cooperation Movement. 
  • Finally, in December 1920, after careful consideration and deliberation, the movement was officially adopted, marking a turning point in the struggle for independence.

Differing Strands within the Movement

In January 1921, Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement commenced, bringing together an array of social groups, each propelled by its distinct aspirations. While the common thread was a call for Swaraj, every group interpreted and pursued this goal in unique ways, contributing to the movement’s richness in terms of ideologies and actions.

The Movement in the Towns

Diverse Responses to Non-Cooperation: Movement was instigated by urban middle-class. 

• It witnessed a significant participation from students, disillusioned by government-controlled schools, left in masses. 
• Teachers and headmasters, in a show of solidarity, tendered their resignations, and lawyers relinquished their legal practices. 
• Council elections faced widespread boycotts, reflecting the movement’s resolve. 
• Exception of Madras: Justice Party, representing non-Brahmans, adopted a different strategy. 
  • They perceived council participation as a strategic manoeuvre to access power corridors, typically monopolized by Brahmans.
• Economic Impact of Non-Cooperation: Movement struck at the heart of economy. 
  • People boycotted foreign goods, picketed liquor shops, and set foreign cloth ablaze. The impact was staggering, imports of foreign cloth plummeted from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore between 1921 and 1922. 
  • Traders and merchants nationwide refused to engage in foreign trade, redirecting their investments and support toward Indian textile mills and handlooms, leading to a remarkable surge in production.
• Challenges and Limitations of Non-Cooperation: The momentum in urban areas dwindled due to practical challenges. 
  • Khadi cloth, although symbolic, often proved costlier than mass-produced mill cloth, making it inaccessible for many. 
  • Lack of well-established Indian institutions as alternatives to British ones posed a significant hurdle. 
  • Slow emergence of these institutions led to a gradual return of students, teachers, and lawyers to government schools and courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside

Peasants and Tribals Participation: Non-Cooperation Movement extended its influence to rural areas, addressing concerns of peasants and tribals across India. 

• Focused on issues such as high rents and begar (forced labour), the movement demanded reduced revenue, abolition of begar, and a social boycott of landlords displaying oppressive behaviour.
• Awadh Peasant Movement: In June 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru engaged with Awadh villagers, comprehending their grievances. 
  • By October, he, alongside Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi,  and others, established Oudh Kisan Sabha, reaching over 300 branches within a month. 

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  • When the Non-Cooperation Movement commenced next year, Congress worked to integrate Awadh’s struggle into the wider movement. 
  • However, peasant movement’s aggressive turn in 1921, involving attacks on talukdars’ houses, bazaar looting, and grain hoard seizures, didn’t align with Congress’ expectations.
• Misinterpretation of Gandhi’s Message: In various locations, local leaders informed peasants that Gandhi had proclaimed tax exemptions and advocated land redistribution for needy. 
  • They invoked his name to validate their actions and aspirations.
• Rise of Tribal Resistance: In Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, tribal peasants embraced Gandhi’s message differently, sparking a militant movement in the 1920s—unapproved by Congress. 
  • Colonial forest closures, disrupting livelihoods and traditional rights, fueled their resistance.
  • The Gudem rebels launched attacks on police stations, attempted to assassinate British officials, and engaged in guerrilla warfare for Swaraj.
• Alluri Sitaram Raju and Guerrilla Movement: Government’s demand for beggars in road construction sparked a revolt among the hill people. 
  • Leading them was the enigmatic Alluri Sitaram Raju, who claimed special powers like accurate astrology and healing abilities. 
  • He even declared himself bulletproof, a divine incarnation. While Raju praised Mahatma Gandhi’s greatness, he believed in achieving India’s liberation through force, not non-violence. 
  • Raju’s capture and execution in 1924 elevated him to the status of a folk hero.

Swaraj in the Plantations

Freedom and Mobility: In the context of Assam, freedom for plantation workers signified liberty to move without restrictions and maintain their vital link with their home villages.

• Inland Emigration Act of 1859:  Plantation workers were not permitted to leave tea gardens without permission, and in fact, they were rarely given such permission.
• Non-Cooperation Movement Participation: Thousands of workers left plantations, hoping for Gandhi’s promised land. 
  • However, their journey was disrupted by strikes, resulting in brutal police intervention.
• Tribal Visions of Swaraj: The tribal movements’ interpretation of Swaraj diverged from Congress program. 
  • They envisioned it as an era devoid of suffering. 
  • Chanting Gandhiji’s name and demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat,’ they emotionally engaged in a nationwide agitation, transcending local confines.

Conclusion

Gandhi’s arrival transformed the Indian National Movement. His philosophy of Satyagraha and experiments like Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience galvanized the masses, shifting struggle from elite-led politics to a popular uprising. By emphasizing Swaraj as self-rule and economic independence, Gandhi not only challenged British authority but also inspired a vision of a free and equitable India, fundamentally altering the trajectory of the freedom movement.