Earth’s Evolution: The Continental Drift Theory

In 1912, Alfred Wegener introduced the “continental drift theory,” which revolutionized our understanding of Earth’s geography. His theory illuminated how oceans and continents have shifted over time. Wegener’s groundbreaking idea sparked a new era in geology, transforming our perception of the planet’s history and evolution.

Historical Development of Continental Drift Theory

• Implications for Continental Connectivity: The symmetrical shape of the Atlantic Ocean coastlines intrigued scientists, leading many to consider the possibility of the Americas, Europe, and Africa being connected in the past.
• Early Proposal: Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch map maker, was among the first to propose this idea back in 1596.
• Map Illustration: Antonio Pellegrini later illustrated a map depicting the three continents joined together.
• Continental Drift Theory: However, it was Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, who presented a comprehensive argument known as “the continental drift theory.”

Continental Drift Theory: Wegener’s Proposition

• During the early 20th century, Wegener published a paper outlining his theory that the continents were moving across the Earth’s surface, occasionally colliding with each other or traversing oceans. He termed this phenomenon continental drift.
• Pangaea: Wegener proposed that approximately 200 million years ago, all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous, single supercontinent landmass called Pangaea.
• Panthalassa: The supercontinent Pangaea was surrounded by the mega-ocean Panthalassa, shaping Earth’s ancient geography.
• He argued that, around 200 million years ago, Pangaea split into two large continental masses Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern and southern components. 
• Laurasia and Gondwanaland further evolved into present-day continents. 

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Supporting Evidence for Continental Drift 

• Jig-Saw Puzzle: Matching shorelines of Africa and South America.
  • Wegener observed that the rock layers and mountain ranges on the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa fit together, similar to a jigsaw puzzle. 
  • He also found geological similarities between the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States and the Caledonian Mountains in Scotland.
  • Bullard’s 1964 Computer-Generated Map: A computer-generated map aligning the Atlantic margin, proving remarkably accurate when matched at the 1,000 fathom line instead of the shoreline.
• Rocks of the Same Age across the Oceans: A 2,000-million-year-old rock belt from Brazil has similar formations as in western Africa.
  • Earliest Marine Deposits: It was found along South America and Africa’s coastlines, from the Jurassic age, indicate the absence of an ocean before then.
• Tillite: These are Sedimentary rocks formed out of glacier deposits. 
  • Notably, Gondawana sediments with tillite at the base from India have counterparts in regions like Africa, Madagascar, and Antarctica, implying shared geological histories.
  • These Glacial tillites offer clear evidence of past climates and continental drift.
• Placer Deposits: The Ghanaian coast has rich gold placer deposits despite the absence of a gold source rock. The Brazilian plateau has gold bearing veins from which they are derived.
• Distribution of Fossils: Lemurs, for instance, are found across India, Madagascar, and Africa even though these places are now separated by ocean.
  • Mesosaurus, (a small reptile) is found only in two places: Southern Cape province of South Africa and Iraver formations in Brazil which are now 4,800 km apart with an ocean between them.
  • Wegener studied tropical plant fossils in Norway’s Svalbard, indicating a warmer past climate for the Arctic region.

Driving Forces of Continental Drift

• Pole-Fleeing Force: Due to the rotation of Earth
• Tidal Force: Due to the attraction of the moon and the sun
• Wegener believed that these forces would take millions of years to become effective, but most scholars considered them insufficient.
• Continental Drift influenced the evolution of organisms. [UPSC 2014]

Post Drift Studies

• Initial Rejection of Wegener’s Theory: Scientists initially rejected Wegener’s continental drift theory due to a lack of explanation for the mechanism driving it.
  • One missing element was an explanation for why continents drift and the patterns they follow.
  • Wegener proposed Earth’s rotation as a possible cause, although this explanation was later disproven.
• Post-War Geological Discoveries: Continental drift evidence primarily collected from continental regions via flora, fauna, and deposits like tillite.
  • Post-war period discoveries expanded geological knowledge, especially through ocean floor mapping.
• Ocean Floor Mapping and Plate Tectonics: Ocean floor mapping offered fresh insights into the distribution of oceans and continents.
• • Continents rest on massive slabs of rock called tectonic plates, which are constantly moving and interacting in a process known as plate tectonics.
• Seafloor Spreading: It occurs when molten rock rises from within the Earth, adding new seafloor to the edges of old, most dynamically along mid-ocean ridges.
• Rift Valleys: form where continental landmasses are splitting apart, like Africa’s Great Rift Valley system.
• Subduction:  It occurs when heavier tectonic plates sink beneath lighter ones.
• Forces Behind Continental Drift: These processes, established in the 1960s, were the main geological forces behind what Wegener termed continental drift.
• Formation and Breakup of Supercontinents: Today, scientists believe that many supercontinents, similar to Pangaea, have formed and broken apart throughout Earth’s history. 
  • Examples: Pannotia supercontinent, which formed around 600 million years ago, and  Rodinia supercontinent, which existed over a billion years ago.

Conclusion

• The Continental Drift Theory revolutionized our understanding of Earth’s geological history, revealing the dynamic nature of our planet’s surface. 
• From the early rejection to the establishment of plate tectonics, the theory has reshaped geological sciences, providing insights into the formation and breakup of supercontinents and the continuous movement of tectonic plates. 
• It stands as a cornerstone in Earth sciences, demonstrating the ever-changing nature of our planet over millions of years.