The Portuguese in India: Expansion, Administration, and Decline

Why did the Portuguese became the first to reach India?

• Expansionist Ambitions: Portugal had assumed leadership of Christendom in its resistance against Islam, thus they wanted to expand their domination across geographies.
• Grant of Exploration Rights to India: Prince Henry of Portugal, also known as the ‘Navigator’ was given a bull by Pope Nicholas V in 1454, conferring on him the right to explore the oriental shores as far as India. 
• Treaty of Tordesillas: In 1497, pursuant to the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), Portugal and Spain divided the non-Christian world by an imaginary line in the Atlantic, 1,300 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands. 
  • Portugal was granted the right to claim and occupy territories to the east of the line, while Spain could do so for territories to the west. 
  • This division set the stage for Portuguese ventures into the waters around India.
• Portuguese in India Arrival: In 1487, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed up the eastern coast of Africa, mistaking it to be India. However, it was in May 1498, that the Portuguese finally landed in India.  

Chronology of Important Portuguese Figures in India 

• Vasco Da Gama 

• • Arrived in India in 1498, led by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid.
  • Got a friendly reception from the Zamorin (ruler of Calicut), through which he was able to gain huge profits from the pepper trade.
  • Came to India again in 1501 and set up a trading factory at Cannanore.

Enroll now for UPSC Online Course

• Pedro Alvarez Cabral 
  • Trade and the Establishment of a Factory: He embarked on a voyage to trade for spices and established a factory in Calicut in September 1500.
  • Conflict and Retaliation: Conflict arose when the Portuguese factory in Calicut was attacked, leading to casualties among the Portuguese in India.
    • In retaliation, Cabral seized Arab merchant ships, causing significant loss of life, confiscating cargo, and burning the ships. 
    • Calicut was bombarded by Cabral. 
  • Despite the conflict, Cabral later successfully negotiated favourable treaties with local rulers in Cochin and Cannanore.
• Francisco De Almeida 
  • Governor of India: In 1505, the King of Portugal appointed Francisco De Almeida as governor of India.
  • Almeida’s Strategic Goals: Almeida’s mission was to consolidate the Portuguese position, destroy Muslim trade, and seize Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca. 
    • He was advised to build fortresses at Anjadiva, Cochin, Cannanore, and Kilwa.
  • Challenges and Opposition: Faced opposition from the Zamorin and a threat from the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. 
    • Egyptians, supported by Venetian merchants, raised a fleet to counter Portuguese interference. 
  • In 1507, a Portuguese in India squadron was defeated in a naval battle off Diu by combined Egyptian and Gujarat navies, resulting in the death of Almeida’s son.
    • Almeida avenged the defeat in 1508 by crushing the two navies.
    • Almeida aimed to make the Portuguese the master of the Indian Ocean, implementing the Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system).
• Alfonso de Albuquerque
  • Succeeded Almeida as Portuguese Governor in India and is considered to be the real founder of Portuguese power in the East.
  • Successfully established bases at Ormuz, in Malabar, in Malacca as well as in the Red Sea to maintain Portuguese control over the Indian Ocean. 
  • He introduced a ‘permit system’ for other ships. 
  • Acquired Goa from Sultan of Bijapur in 1510, which became the first Indian territory under European control since Alexander the Great. [UPSC 2022]
  • Introduced new crops like Tobacco and Cashew nut, or better plantation varieties of coconut.
  • Bitter persecution of Muslims due to Portuguese leadership of Christendom.
  • Albuquerque abolished sati and encouraged Portuguese men to marry locals. Portuguese settlers in Goa and the North Province became landlords, introducing new crops and infrastructure.
• Nino Da Cunha 
  • Appointment as Governor: He became governor of Portuguese interests in India in November 1529.
  • Headquarters in Goa: Shifted the Portuguese in India government headquarters from Cochin to Goa in 1530.
  • Gain of Bassein: Bahudaur shah sought help from the Portuguese during his conflict with Humayun in 1534. 
    • He ceded the island of Bassein with its dependencies and promised a base in Diu to the Portuguese.
  • Deterioration of Relations: Relations soured when Humayun withdrew from Gujarat in 1536. 
    • Conflict arose as inhabitants of the town fought with the Portuguese in India. 
    • Bahadur Shah aimed to raise a partition wall, leading to negotiations with the Portuguese.
    • In 1537, during the negotiations, the ruler of Gujarat was invited to a Portuguese ship and killed.
    • Da Cunha aimed to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal, settling Portuguese nationals with Hooghly as their headquarters.

Favourable Conditions for the Portuguese

• Fragmented Kingdoms: Except for Gujarat, which was ruled by Mahmud Begarha, all other parts of India were under fragmented kingdoms and did not have a strong navy.
• Differences in Organization and Unity: The Arab merchants did not have the organization and unity of the Portuguese. 
• Portuguese Naval Superiority: The Portuguese also had canons on their ships, giving them a military advantage.

Enroll now for UPSC Online Classes

Administration of India Under Portuguese

• Geographical Expanse of Territories Under Portuguese Control
  • Important regions under their control were Goa, Mumbai, Daman & Diu, as well as trading posts down South combined with military posts on the Eastern coast, such as San Thome in Chennai, and Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu.
  • Cities like Mangalore, Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin became important trade centers for the Portuguese. 
  • In the 16th Century, Hooghly in West Bengal became a very important settlement.
• Structure of Administration
  • The viceroy was the head of administration and had a term of three years. 
  • The viceroy was supported by the Secretary as well as a Council in later years. 
  • Vedor da Fazenda was the second most important official who was responsible for revenues, cargoes and dispatch of fleets
  • Captains, assisted by ‘factors’, had control over Fortresses under Portugal.
• Religious Policy
  • Promote Christianity: Wanted to promote Christianity across all their territories and persecute Muslims. 
    • Portuguese were initially tolerant towards Hindus, but later they persecuted Hindus to promote conversions.
  • Jesuits Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate were sent to Mughal emperor Akbar’s court in 1580 and were treated with respect. 
    • However, Portuguese hopes of converting Akbar never became a reality, even after successive attempts. 
• Political Relations with the Mughals 
  • Positive Relations with Jesuits: Akbar and Jahangir treated Jesuits with respect, leading to good relations in the initial years.
  • British Entry into Jahangir’s Court and Portuguese Retaliation: In 1608, British Captain William Hawkins came to Jahangir’s court and won his favour, as seen in being granted trading facilities. 
    • This made the Portuguese retaliate against the British, their new competitor in the Indian Ocean.
    • Portuguese acts of piracy also irritated the Mughal government, which strained the relations. 
  • Decline of Portuguese Influence: Under the reign of Shah Jahan, the Portuguese lost all the advantages that they enjoyed in the Mughal court since the time of Emperor Akbar.  
  • Portuguese Monopoly and Enforcement: They monopolized the manufacture of salt, built a custom house of their own, and started enforcing the levy of duty on tobacco strictly.
  • Slave Trade and Siege of Hooghly: Portuguese engaged in a cruel slave trade, purchasing or seizing Hindu and Muslim children and raising them as Christians. 
    • They seized two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal during their activities.
    • In response, Shah Jahan ordered Bengal governor Qasim Khan to take action against the Portuguese. 
    • A Mughal siege of Hooghly began on June 24, 1632, resulting in its capture three months later.
    • The Portuguese fled, and the Mughals suffered a loss of 1,000 men but took 400 prisoners to Agra. 
    • Prisoners were given the choice to convert to Islam or become slaves.
• Factors Behind the Decline of the Portuguese 
  • Erosion of Competitive Advantage: The rise of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia as well as in North India made them lose their competitive advantage in the initial years.
  • Antagonism due to Religious Policies: Religious policies such as conversion by force antagonized both Muslim and Hindu rulers.
  • Resentment towards Portuguese Rule: The notoriety of the Portuguese as sea pirates, combined with excessive use of violence, led to resentment among local rulers.
  • Portuguese Shift to Brazil: Later, Portugal shifted its focus to Brazil for its colonizing activities, which led to the neglect of Indian territories. 
    • Now Brazil became the economic center of the overseas empire of Portugal as against Goa earlier. 
  • Impact on Portuguese Monopoly in India: The Union of Spain and Portugal led to an increased focus on Spain’s wars with England and Holland, thereby making a loss of the Portuguese monopoly over India inevitable.
  • Emergence of Competitors: Other colonial powers, such as the Dutch and the English, now knew the sea route to India neutralizing the first mover advantage of Portugal. 
• Significance of the Portuguese 
• • Beginning of European Domination: Portugal’s ascent initiated the European Era of domination against regional powers holding their own earlier.
  • Portuguese Naval Superiority in India: The Portuguese were the first foreign naval power to come to India. They had cannons on their ships, which helped them monopolize trade using tools of violence. 
  • Military Innovation and Influence: They showcased military innovation through the use of body armour, matchlock men and guns from their ships. 
    • They also used the Spanish model to organize their infantry which was later followed by the French, the English as well as the Marathas using similar strategies. 
  • Portuguese Naval Advancements: Improved shipbuilding techniques helped them navigate the seas across seasons. 
    • The Portuguese created Royal arsenals, Dockyards and had a regular system for pilots which ensured optimal performance of their navy in the Indian Ocean.

Enroll now for UPSC Online Coaching

Conclusion

• The arrival of the Portuguese in India marked a significant turning point in history, and reshaped trade, power, and cultural landscapes in the region.
• The Portuguese introduced new technologies,  military innovations, administrative systems, and trade routes, influencing subsequent European colonial ventures and shaping the course of global history.      
• However, their arrival also sparked conflicts, cultural clashes, and resentment among indigenous populations, leaving a complex legacy that continues to impact the Indian subcontinent and beyond.