{"id":131799,"date":"2024-09-13T12:33:19","date_gmt":"2024-09-13T07:03:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/?post_type=docs&#038;p=131799"},"modified":"2024-11-12T18:28:56","modified_gmt":"2024-11-12T12:58:56","password":"","slug":"criticisms-of-fundamental-rights-in-india","status":"publish","type":"docs","link":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/docs\/criticisms-of-fundamental-rights-in-india","title":{"rendered":"Exceptions and Criticisms of Fundamental Rights in India: Understanding Articles 31A, 31B, and 31C"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\/historical-evolution-making-features-of-the-constitution\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Indian Constitution<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> includes specific provisions under<\/span><b> Articles 31A, 31B, and 31C<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that exempt certain laws from being challenged as <\/span><b>violations of Fundamental Rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. These exceptions are designed <\/span><b>to balance state policies with constitutional values<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. This article explores these<\/span><b> provisions, their scope, and the criticisms<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> surrounding the broader framework of Fundamental Rights in India.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Balancing Rights and Governance: Exceptions to Fundamental Rights and Their Criticisms in the Indian Constitution<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\"><b>Exceptions to <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\/fundamental-rights\/\"><b>Fundamental Rights<\/b><\/a><b>: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The provisions mentioned relate to <\/span><b>Articles 31A, 31B, and 31C<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the Indian Constitution, each dealing with the <\/span><b>protection of certain laws from judicial review<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> based on contravention of Fundamental Rights.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><i><span class=\"vc_button\"><\/i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pw.live\/batches\/upsc?utm_source=seo+upsc+batch&#038;utm_medium=seo+upsc&#038;utm_campaign=seo&#038;utm_id=upsc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Enroll now for UPSC Online Course<\/i><\/a><i><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Detailed Explanation Of These Articles Are<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span style=\"font-size: 16pt;\"><b>Article 31A:\u00a0 Saving Of Laws Providing For Acquisition Of Estates, Etc.<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This article protects specific laws related to<\/span><b> land reforms and other <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/economy\/\"><b>economic <\/b><\/a><b>measures<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from being challenged on the<\/span><b> grounds of violating the fundamental rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> under <\/span><b>Articles 14 <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(equality before the law) and <\/span><b>19<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.).<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Covered Laws: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It covers laws dealing with the <\/span><b>acquisition of estates, taking over property management by the state, amalgamation of corporations, modification of rights in corporations,<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and<\/span><b> modification of mining leases.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Procedure for Immunity: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, for a state law to enjoy this immunity, it must be<\/span><b> reserved for the President&#8217;s consideration<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and receive his assent.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Compensation Requirement:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> It also mandates compensation at <\/span><b>market value for land acquisitions <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">within certain limits.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-size: 16pt;\"><b>Article 31B: Validation of Certain Acts and Regulations<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Broad Protection for Laws in the Ninth Schedule: Article 31B<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> provides a<\/span><b> broader protection than Article 31<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A. It safeguards any laws in the<\/span><b> Ninth Schedule of the Constitution from being invalidated for infringing any fundamental rights.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Expansion of the Ninth Schedule: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Initially, the Ninth Schedule contained<\/span><b> only 13 acts<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, but as of 2016, it includes<\/span><b> 282 acts<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, primarily related to <\/span><b>land reforms and the abolition of the zamindari<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> system.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Judicial Review Limitations: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, the Supreme Court in the <\/span><b>I.R. Coelho case (2007)<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> held that laws in the Ninth Schedule<\/span><b> post-April 24, 1973<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (the date of the Kesavananda Bharati judgment introducing the &#8216;basic structure&#8217; doctrine), <\/span><b>could be subject to judicial review<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> if they violate fundamental rights or the constitution&#8217;s basic structure.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-size: 16pt;\"><b>Article 31c: Saving Of Laws Giving Effect To Certain Directive Principles<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Provisions: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Inserted by the<\/span><b> 25th Amendment Act of 1971<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, Article 31C initially had two provisions.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Protection for Laws Implementing Directive Principles: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The first stated that laws implementing<\/span><b> certain <\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\/directive-principles-of-state-policy\/\"><b>directive principles<\/b><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, especially those in <\/span><b>Article 39(b) and (c),<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> cannot be voided for contravening<\/span><b> Articles 14 and 19.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Court Challenge Ban Declared Unconstitutional: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The second provision, which prevented any law containing a declaration for implementing such policies from being questioned in court, was declared unconstitutional in the<\/span><b> Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">as it violated the basic structure of the Constitution.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Expansion of Protection by the 42nd Amendment Act (1976): <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 tried to expand this protection to<\/span><b> any law implementing any directive principles<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">,<\/span><b>\u00a0<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>However, this extension was struck down in the Minerva Mills case (1980).<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Balancing State Policies and Fundamental Rights:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> These articles illustrate the complex balance between protecting certain<\/span><b> state policies, particularly in land and economic reform, and maintaining the supremacy of fundamental rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and the <\/span><b>constitution&#8217;s basic structure<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Criticism of Fundamental Rights<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Criticism of fundamental rights in the Indian Constitution often revolves around several key points, <\/span><b>each highlighting perceived limitations or issues in their implementation and scope.\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<p><b>Some of them are as follows:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Lack of Social and Economic Rights: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Fundamental rights primarily focus on <\/span><b>civil and political rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, with less emphasis on socio-economic rights like the<\/span><b> right to work, education, or health<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Example:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> The right to education was added much later (86th Amendment, 2002), highlighting initial gaps in addressing social rights.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Suspension during Emergency: Article 359<\/b> <b>allows the suspension of fundamental rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> during a national emergency.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This provision was controversially used during the<\/span><b> Emergency (1975-1977)<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, leading to widespread violations of civil liberties.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Restrictive Nature of Some Rights: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Certain rights come with inherent restrictions in the interest of<\/span><b> public order, morality, and health<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For instance, the<\/span><b> freedom of speech and expression is not absolute<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and can be restricted to maintain public order, affecting its practical applicability.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Limited Reach and Enforcement: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Despite being guaranteed by the Constitution, the enforcement of fundamental rights can be uneven, especially in rural or marginalized communities.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For instance, <\/span><b>cases of discrimination and untouchability still exist<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, despite being prohibited under <\/span><b>Article 17<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Absence of Universal Application: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Certain fundamental rights, like <\/span><b>cultural and educational rights given under Articles 29 and 30<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, are specifically designed for minorities, leading to debates about unequal privileges and their impact on social harmony.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Conflict with Directive Principles: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Often, there is a conflict between fundamental rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Example<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: The <\/span><b>right to property was a fundamental right but was later removed<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to facilitate land reforms as per the Directive Principles.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Ambiguity in Interpretation: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The broad and ambiguous wording of some rights leads to varying interpretations.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Example: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The interpretation of what constitutes <\/span><b>&#8216;public order&#8217; or &#8216;morality&#8217; <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">for limiting freedom of speech can vary, leading to<\/span><b> inconsistent judicial decisions<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Economic and Social Constraints: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The effective realization of fundamental rights is often hampered by economic and social constraints.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Example<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: The right against exploitation is hindered by the<\/span><b> widespread poverty and lack of education<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which forces many into exploitative labor conditions.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Implementation Issues:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> There is often a gap between the legal provision of rights and their actual implementation on the ground.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For instance, the<\/span><b> right to equality is challenged by pervasive caste and gender discrimination<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> in various spheres of life.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Overemphasis on Individual Rights: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some critics argue that the <\/span><b>Constitution overemphasizes individual rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> at the expense of community welfare.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This can sometimes lead to<\/span><b> conflicts where individual rights clash with collective interests.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Rights Outside Part III<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Rights Enshrined Outside Part III: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Indian Constitution, while primarily known for its Fundamental Rights listed in Part III, also <\/span><b>enshrines other important rights in its different parts<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These rights, though justiciable, differ from the Fundamental Rights in their nature and the remedies available upon their violation.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">These are <\/span><b>constitutional or legal rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, not classified as Fundamental Rights.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">They are part of various other sections of the Constitution.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Some of them are:\u00a0<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Article 265 (Part XII):<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> This article states that <\/span><b>no tax shall be levied or collected without the authority of law<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, ensuring that taxation is done legally and transparently.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Article 300-A (Part XII): <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It provides that <\/span><b>no person shall be deprived of their property except by the authority of law<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"3\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This article was added to the Constitution<\/span><b> after the right to property was removed<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from the list of Fundamental Rights.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Article 301 (Part XIII): <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This guarantees the <\/span><b>freedom of trade, commerce, and intercourse throughout the territory of India<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, fostering a unified market and economic unity within the country.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Justiciability and Enforcement:<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Justiciability of Rights Outside Part III: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">While<\/span><b> these rights are justiciable<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (meaning they can be enforced in courts), the <\/span><b>process for their enforcement differs<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from that of Fundamental Rights.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Enforcement of Fundamental Rights: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In case of a violation of Fundamental Rights, the aggrieved person can directly approach the Supreme Court under Article 32, which itself is a Fundamental Right, providing an effective and expedient remedy.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Enforcement of Rights Outside Part III:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> If there is a violation of these constitutional rights, the<\/span><b> aggrieved individual cannot use Article 32<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"3\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Instead, they must approach the <\/span><b>High Court under Article 226<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> or file an ordinary lawsuit.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"3\"><b>Article 226 empowers High Courts to issue certain writs<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> for the enforcement of these rights and offers a broader scope compared to Article 32.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Evolution and Current Status of the Right to Property in India<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span style=\"font-size: 16pt;\"><b>Original Status<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Fundamental Right:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Initially, the right to property was among the <\/span><b>seven fundamental rights <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">under Part III of the Constitution, addressed by<\/span><b> Article 19(1)(f) and Article 31<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Article 19(1)(f):<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Guaranteed every citizen the right to<\/span><b> acquire, hold, and dispose of property<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Article 31:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Assured every person, citizen or not, protection against property deprivation, subject to lawful authority.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">It also set conditions for <\/span><b>state acquisition or requisition of property: for public purpose and with compensation.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-131807 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Screenshot-2024-09-13-123743.webp\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"319\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Screenshot-2024-09-13-123743.webp 320w, https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Screenshot-2024-09-13-123743-300x300.webp 300w, https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/09\/Screenshot-2024-09-13-123743-150x150.webp 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 320px) 100vw, 320px\" \/><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-size: 16pt;\"><b>Controversies and Amendments<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Source of Disputes: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This right caused frequent confrontations between the <\/span><b>Supreme Court and Parliament<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, resulting in numerous amendments (1st, 4th, 7th, 25th, 39th, 40th, 42nd) to mitigate the impact of court judgments and protect certain laws from being challenged on the basis of fundamental rights.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><b>Issues of Compensation:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> A major legal contention was the<\/span><b> state\u2019s obligation to compensate for the acquisition or requisition of private property<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-size: 16pt;\"><b>44th Amendment Act of 1978<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Abolition as Fundamental Right: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The 44th Amendment removed the right to property from the list of fundamental rights by repealing<\/span><b> Article 19(1)(f)<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and <\/span><b>Article 31<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Article 300A Introduction:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> A new Article 300A was inserted in Part XII, ensuring that <\/span><b>no person shall be deprived of their property except by authority of law.<\/b><\/li>\n<li><b>Current Status:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> The right to property remains a <\/span><b>constitutional right but not a fundamental one<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. It&#8217;s not part of the Constitution&#8217;s basic structure.<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Supreme Court&#8217;s Ruling on Property Rights Post-Abolition: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After the Fundamental Right to Property was abolished, the Supreme Court upheld its significance as a Fundamental Right in <\/span><b>Bhim Singh v. Union of India (1981)<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"3\"><b>Lacking the fundamental property right,<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> the Court used A<\/span><b>rticle 14&#8217;s principle of reasonableness<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to challenge aspects of urban land ceiling laws<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Supreme Court Ruling:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> In <\/span><b><i>B. K. Ravichandra v. Union of India (2020)<\/i><\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, the Supreme Court ordered the return of land to its owners, underscoring the right&#8217;s importance.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Legal Protection:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> The Court&#8217;s decisions and historical context show that, despite debates on its fundamental status, the right is safeguarded by the rule of law.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Article 300-A:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> This Article, akin to <\/span><b>Articles 21 and 265<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, emphasizes the significance of legal protection and <\/span><b>reinforces the rule of law.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><b>Right to Property as a Human Right<\/b>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Pension as Property:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> The<\/span><b> Bombay High Court in <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">2016 treated <\/span><b>pension payments as property rights<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, emphasizing that they should not be postponed.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Human Rights Aspect:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> The <\/span><b>Supreme Court in 2020<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> highlighted that<\/span><b> Article 300A, along with Article 25(1)<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), aims to<\/span><b> protect property from arbitrary executive action and minor constraints on state power.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Legal Authority Required:<\/b> <b>Allahabad High Court in <\/b><b><i>Gayatri Devi v. State of UP (2019)<\/i><\/b> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">reinforced that property cannot be taken away without legal authority, <\/span><b>making it both a constitutional and human right.<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"2\"><b>Recent Confirmation:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> In <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hari Krishna Mandir Trust v. State of Maharashtra (2020)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, a two-judge bench reaffirmed that <\/span><b>property cannot be seized without following legal procedures, upholding its status under Article 300A<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Implications of Current Status<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Right to Property as a Constitutional and Human Right: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Right to Property is no longer a fundamental right but remains a <\/span><b>constitutional and human right<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, as confirmed in cases like<\/span> <b><i>State of Haryana v. Mukesh Kumar (2011)<\/i><\/b><b>.<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><b>Regulation by Parliament:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> The right can be <\/span><b>regulated, curtailed, or modified by ordinary law <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">without needing a constitutional amendment.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><b>Protection Against Executive Action:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> It offers <\/span><b>protection against executive actions but not against legislative ones.<\/b><\/li>\n<li><b>Legal Recourse: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In case of violation,<\/span><b> one cannot directly approach the Supreme Court<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> under <\/span><b>Article 32<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> but<\/span><b> can approach the High Court under Article 226.<\/b><\/li>\n<li><b>No Guaranteed Compensation:<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> There&#8217;s no inherent right to compensation for state acquisition or requisition of private property.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt; color: #ff6600;\"><b>Exceptions in Part III<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Article 30: Guarantees compensation <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">when<\/span><b> state acquires property from a minority educational institution<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> (added by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978).<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><i><span class=\"vc_button\"><\/i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pw.live\/batches\/upsc?utm_source=seo+upsc+batch&#038;utm_medium=seo+upsc&#038;utm_campaign=seo&#038;utm_id=upsc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Enroll now for UPSC Online Course<\/i><\/a><i><\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li aria-level=\"1\"><b>Article 31A: <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Ensures compensation for land under<\/span><b> personal cultivation within statutory limits <\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(added by the 17th Amendment Act of 1964).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table style=\"width: 99.5604%;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 365.696%; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #ff5e00; text-align: center;\" colspan=\"2\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff;\"><b>Must Read<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50.1198%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/current-affairs\/\"><b>Current Affairs<\/b><\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 315.576%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/editorial-analysis\/\"><b>Editorial Analysis<\/b><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50.1198%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\"><b>Upsc Notes\u00a0<\/b><\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 315.576%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/blogs\/\"><b>Upsc Blogs\u00a0<\/b><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50.1198%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/ncert-notes\/\"><b>NCERT Notes<\/b><\/a><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 315.576%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/mains-answer-writing\/\"><b>Free Main Answer Writing<\/b><\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span style=\"font-size: 18pt;\"><b>Conclusion<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Articles 31A, 31B, and 31C<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> highlight the constitutional balance between<\/span><b> state policies and individual rights.\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Criticisms of Fundamental Rights point to <\/span><b>gaps and limitations in their scope and implementation.\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Understanding these exceptions and criticisms is crucial for assessing the <\/span><b>effectiveness and fairness of India&#8217;s constitutional protections.<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><b><i>Sign up for the<\/i><\/b><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pw.live\/batches\/upsc?utm_source=seo+upsc+batch&#038;utm_medium=seo+upsc&#038;utm_campaign=seo&#038;utm_id=upsc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> <b><i>PWOnlyIAS Online Course by Physics Wallah<\/i><\/b><\/a><b><i> and start your journey to IAS success today!<\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 98.9749%;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 298.666%; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #ff5e00; text-align: center;\" colspan=\"2\"><span style=\"color: #ffffff;\"><b>Related Articles\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 49.4521%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\/fundamental-rights\/\">Fundamental Rights (Article 12-35)<\/a><\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 249.214%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\/historical-evolution-making-features-of-the-constitution\/\">Indian Constitution<\/a><\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 49.4521%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/upsc-notes\/directive-principles-of-state-policy\/\">Directive Principles of State Policy<\/a><\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 249.214%; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #000000; background-color: #e9ebe8;\"><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/economy\/\">Economy<\/a><\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Explore the Indian Constitution&#8217;s broader criticisms of Fundamental Rights as well as the exceptions to Fundamental Rights found in Articles 31A, 31B, and 31C. This knowledge will help you prepare for the UPSC Exam.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":38,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"rank_math_lock_modified_date":false,"footnotes":""},"doc_category":[122],"doc_tag":[5761],"acf":[],"year_month":"2026-04","word_count":1983,"total_views":0,"reactions":{"happy":0,"normal":0,"sad":0},"author_info":{"name":"Priyanka","author_nicename":"priyanka6","author_url":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/author\/priyanka6"},"doc_category_info":[{"term_name":"INDIAN POLITY","term_url":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/docs-category\/indian-polity"}],"doc_tag_info":[{"term_name":"Fundamental Rights","term_url":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/docs-tag\/fundamental-rights"}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/docs\/131799"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/docs"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/docs"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/38"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=131799"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/docs\/131799\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":142442,"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/docs\/131799\/revisions\/142442"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=131799"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"doc_category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/doc_category?post=131799"},{"taxonomy":"doc_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pwonlyias.com\/stage\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/doc_tag?post=131799"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}