Chola Administration: Governance, Military, Economy and Society

The Chola Empire, renowned for its sophisticated administration, military prowess, and economic prosperity, flourished in South India from the 9th to the 13th centuries. Led by powerful monarchs, the Cholas established a well-organized system of governance that encompassed various aspects of society, economy, and defense. From local administration to military strategy and economic policies, the Cholas left a lasting legacy that shaped the region’s history.

An Overview of Chola Administration

1. Centralized Administration

• King’s Role: The king was central to the administration, assisted by royal princes, a ministerial council and administrative staff. State officers received land grants and titles as payment and honour.
• Royal Titles: The kings were invariably addressed as Peruman or Perumagan (big man), Ulagudaiyaperumal (the lord of the world) and Ulagudaiyanayanar (the lord of the world). 
  • Later, they adopted titles such as Chakkaravarti (emperor) and Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three worlds).
• Administrative Division: The empire was divided into provinces (mandalas), which were further subdivided into valanadus and nadus. 
• Patronage of Brahmins and Land Grants: Chola rulers appointed Brahmins as Rajaguru and, therefore granted Brahmadeyams (huge estates of tax exempted land to Brahmins) and Chatur-vedi-mangalams (a tax exempted village for Brahmins).

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2. Local Administration

• Local Administrative Bodies:  It was carried out by diverse village assemblies, like ur, sabha or mahasabha, and nagaram.
  • Ur: was a village assembly for all landholding classes.
  • Sabha: was an assembly of Brahmins in Brahmadeya villages, and 
  • Nagaram: was an assembly for merchants.
• The Uttaramerur inscriptions (919 & 921 AD): It was crafted under the rule of Parantaka Chola I.
  • It throws light on the local administration of Cholas.
    • It provides details of the process of electing members to various committees that administered the affairs of a Brahmin settlement.

3. Army

• Military Organization: Cholas maintained a well-organised army. The army consisted of three conventional divisions: Infantry, Cavalry (Kudirai Sevagar) and Elephant Corps (Anaiyatkal).
• Padaividu: Cantonments, which were established in the capital city.
• Nilaipadai: Military outposts in the conquered territory.
• Dandanayagam: commander-in-chief
• Perundanam: upper rank in the army; Cirudanam- lower rank.
• Velaikkaran: Emperor’s personal bodyguards.
• Villaligal: Bowmen; Valilar– Sword-bearers; Konduvar– Spearmen.

4. Economy

• Land Survey: There was an elaborate “department of land revenue” known as Puravuvari-tinaikkalam.
• • For the purposes of assessing tax, the Cholas undertook extensive land surveys under Rajaraja I (1001), Kulotunga I (1086) and Kulotunga III (1226)
• Nadu-vagaiseykira: these are the surveyors of the land.
• Units of Land Measurement: were known by various names such as kuli, ma, veli, patti, and padagam.

5. Tax 

• Taxation System: The tax rates were fixed depending on the fertility of the soil and the status of the landholder. 
  • The Temples and Brahmins were exempted from paying the taxes. 
• Irai, Kadamai, Opati: Primary land taxes levied on landlords.
• Kudimai: denotes Labour/Service tax levied on cultivators i.e. actual producers of land.
• Pattam and Ayam: denote taxes on various non-agricultural professions.
• Paddy as tax: was collected by a unit called kalam (28 kg).
•  Iraikattina-nellu: Tax paid in kind.

6. Irrigation System

• Vati-vaykkal, a criss-cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing rainwater in the Kavery delta. 

• The irrigation work done by Rajendra Chola I at Gangaikonda Cholapuram was an embankment of solid masonry. He described it as his Jalamayam Jayasthambham, meaning “pillar of victory in water”. He built an irrigation tank called Cholagangam near the capital called Jala-stambha (water-pillar). It became the coronation centre, which was a Chola landmark.

7. Trade 

• Two guild: like groups are known
  • Anjuvannattar: were maritime traders comprising West Asians, including Jews, Christians and Muslims. 
    • They settled all along the port towns on the west coast.
  • Manigramattar: were traders in the hinterland. 
• Vetti and Amanji: were forms of free labour related to public works at the village level.

8. Society

• Social Structure: It was primarily an agrarian society where landholding was the prime determinant of social status and hierarchy.
• Brahmadeya-Kilavars: They were the Brahmin landholders, who were at the top of  Brahmadeya settlements (with tax exemption) displaced  Kudi Neekki (local peasants). 
• Devadana: Temples were gifted land known as Devadana, exempted from tax, as in Brahmadeyams.
• Social Hierarchy: The landholders of Vellanvagai villages were placed next in the social hierarchy. 
  • Ulukudi (tenants): could not own land but had to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and holders of Vellanvagai villages. 
    • While landholders retained Melvaram (major share in harvest), the Ulukudi got Kizh Varam (lower share).
  • Paniceymakkal (laborers) and Adimaigal (slaves): stayed at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

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Conclusion

The Chola Empire stands as a testament to the achievements of ancient Indian civilization. Through their innovative administrative practices, military strength, and economic policies, the Cholas created a prosperous and influential empire. However, with the rise of local chiefs and external invasions, the once-mighty Chola Empire eventually succumbed, marking the end of an era in South Indian history. Yet, their legacy lives on through their remarkable contributions to art, architecture, literature, and governance.