The British claimed paramountcy in India, asserting their ultimate authority over princely states, starting in the 18th century. This concept justified their dominance and control over Indian territories, economy, and governance. It became a cornerstone of British colonial rule, shaping Indian politics and society profoundly until independence in 1947.

Towards Paramountcy

Major Shift: In the early nineteenth century, the Company adopted an aggressive policy of territorial expansion.

• Paramountcy: Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823), introduced a new policy of “paramountcy”.
• Justified Goal: He  claimed that its authority was supreme and paramount and hence the annexation of Indian kingdoms to protect Company interests was justified.
• Examples of Paramountcy: Rani Channamma led a popular anti-British resistance movement against this paramountcy policy when the British attempted to annex the small state of Kittur in Karnataka.

The Doctrine of Lapse

Annexation: This final wave of annexations in India occurred under Lord Dalhousie, who served as Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.

• Concept: Under this doctrine of lapse, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, their kingdom would automatically become part of Company territory.
• Fall of kingdoms: Several kingdoms were annexed using this doctrine, including Satara in 1848, Sambalpur in 1849, Udaipur in 1854, Nagpur in 1854, and Jhansi in 1854, and Awadh in 1856. 

Setting up a New Administration

Before Warren Hastings: The Company gained control not only in Bengal but also in Bombay and Madras, which were divided into administrative units called Presidencies.

• Supreme Leadership: Each presidency ruled by a Governor, with the Governor-General serving as the supreme head of the administration.
• Administrative Reforms under Warren Hastings: In 1772, a new justice system was established, with each district having two courts: 
• A criminal court (faujdari adalat) and 
• A civil court (diwani adalat).
• Interpretation by Religious Leaders: Indian laws were interpreted by Maulvis and Hindu pandits for European district collectors who presided over civil courts; whereas the criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors.
• The Regulating Act of 1773: It led to the establishment of a new Supreme Court, while a court of appeal called the Sadar Nizamat Adalat was set up in Calcutta.

The Company Army

Rely on Mughal Army: Though colonial rule in India introduced administrative and reform ideas, it relied mainly on the Mughal army consisting mainly of cavalry (sawars) and infantry (paidal soldiers) supplied by the local zamindars.

• Cavalry Dominance and Infantry Neglect: As the Mughals relied heavily on cavalry, they did not feel the need to have a large professionally trained infantry.
• Military Evolution: Mughal successor states like Awadh and Benaras in the 18th century started recruiting peasants and training them as professional soldiers, following similar steps the Company began recruiting for its own army, which came to be known as the sepoy army (from the Indian word “sipahi”, meaning soldier).
• Cavalry Weakness: The weakness of Company’s cavalry came forth in 1820s war with Burma, Afghanistan, and Egypt, where soldiers used muskets and matchlocks, making infantry regiments more vital.
• Shift in Warfare Tactics: In the early nineteenth century, the British introduced a uniform military culture, subjecting soldiers to European-style training, drill, and discipline.

Steam Power and British Dominion

Impact of Technology: The transformation of the East India Company from a trading entity into a territorial colonial power was significantly accelerated by the introduction of steam technology in the early nineteenth century.

• Increased Accessibility: This technological advancement drastically reduced the travel time to India, making it more accessible for British settlers. 
• Establishment of Regional Dominance: By 1857, the East India Company had expanded its control to approximately 63% of the territory and 78% of the population of the Indian subcontinent, effectively establishing dominance over the entire region through direct and indirect means. 
• Tectonic Shift: This marked a pivotal moment in the history of British colonialism in India, shaping the course of events for years to come.

Conclusion

Claim to Paramountcy asserted British dominion over Indian states. Doctrines like Lapse facilitated annexations. The Company transformed from a trading entity to a colonial power with its own administrative and military structures. By 1857, British dominance was established, setting the stage for a future clash with Indian nationalism.