In the tapestry of India’s colonial era, the rural landscapes and tribal communities emerge as potent narratives of transformation and resistance. These communities, rich in tradition and cultural ethos, were juxtaposed against the encompassing embrace of colonial impositions. Moreover, the influence of the English East India Company reshaped rural dynamics, introducing economic disparities and redefining land ownership. 

The Company Becomes the Diwan

Event: On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. 

• Significance: The event marked the Company’s transition from trade to administration.
• Depiction: In British imagination, this was seen as a significant event, captured in majestic paintings, although the actual event was likely a more modest affair.

Revenue for the Company

Role Transition: As the Diwan, the Company had to oversee land administration and revenue organisation. 

• Trade Priority: Despite administrative responsibilities, the Company’s primary aim remained trade.
• Revenue Use: Before 1765, the Company bought Indian goods using gold and silver imported from Britain. 
  • Post-1765: The Company utilized revenue from Bengal for this purpose.
• Economic Strain: The forced buying system at low prices led artisans to desert villages, and peasants found it hard to meet high revenue demands. 
  • Effect: This affected both artisanal and agricultural sectors.
• 1770 Famine: A devastating famine hit Bengal, killing about one-third of the population.

The Need to Improve Agriculture

Necessity: The deteriorating economy and famine highlighted the need for improved agriculture.

• Permanent Settlement (1793):
  • Leadership: Cornwallis was the Governor- General of Bengal when the Permanent Settlement was introduced. 
  • Fixed Revenue: The revenue amount was fixed permanently and the Company recognized rajas and taluqdars as zamindars.
  • Role of Zamindars: Zamindars were responsible for collecting rent from peasants and paying revenue to the Company.
• Issues with Permanent Settlement:
  • Problem to Zamindar: High revenue demands led many zamindars to lose their lands.

• • Problem to Company: Even with market price increases in the 19th century, the Company couldn’t benefit due to fixed revenue demands.
  • Lack Improvement: While zamindars had higher incomes, there was no incentive to improve the land.
  • Peasant Plight: High rents, insecure rights, and dependence on moneylenders made life difficult for peasants.

New Systems Devised

Mahalwari Settlement (1822):

• Area: Introduced primarily in the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency.
• Concept: Introduced by Holt Mackenzie, this system prioritized village-level revenue collection. 
• The revenue collection responsibility shifted from zamindars to village headmen.
• The Munro System: The Ryotwari System in the South was introduced by Captain Read and expanded by Thomas Munro.

• • focusing on direct settlements with ryots or cultivators. 
• Ryotwar (Ryotwari) System: It was implemented in the British territories in the South. 
  • Direct settlement: Under this system, settlements were made directly with ryots (cultivators). 
  • Image of Protector: The British were envisioned as protectors or “paternal father figures” for the ryots.
• Challenges with New Systems: Both the mahalwari and ryotwari systems faced issues like-
  • High Demand: High revenue demands led to peasants leaving their lands.
  • Lost Vision: The vision of converting peasants into thriving farmers wasn’t achieved.
  • Dual Blow: The newly implemented systems couldn’t ensure the well-being of the peasants nor meet the Company’s revenue aspirations.

Conclusion

Impact on Agricultural Economy: The British land revenue policies had a profound impact on India’s agricultural economy, reshaping land ownership patterns and agrarian relations.

• Social Disruption and Resistance: These policies caused social disruption, leading to widespread protests, peasant uprisings, and agrarian revolts against exploitative practices.
• Long-term Legacy: Despite attempts at reforms, the legacy of British land revenue policies continued to influence India’s socio-economic landscape long after independence.