The modern history of China has been characterized by efforts to regain sovereignty, end foreign occupation, and achieve equality and development. Chinese debates involved three main groups: Early reformers who tried to adapt traditional ideas to confront Western challenges, Republican revolutionaries influenced by Japanese and Western ideas, and The Communist Party of China (CCP) aimed at ending age-old inequalities and foreign influence.

Modern History of China

Jesuit Missionaries: China’s modernization began with its early encounters with the West in the 16th and 17th centuries through Jesuit missionaries introducing Western sciences. 

• The First Opium War: The momentum increased in the 19th century with the First Opium War (1839-42), instigated by Britain’s expansion of the opium trade. 
  • This conflict weakened the Qing dynasty and fueled calls for reform. 
• Qing Reformers’ Vision: Qing reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao recognized the need for a modern administrative system, a new army, and educational reforms to protect China from colonization.
• Influence of Colonial Examples: Chinese thinkers were influenced by negative examples of colonized countries, such as the partition of Poland and India’s subservience to the British. 
• National Assertion Against the West: They believed that to resist the West, China had to assert itself as a nation. Many believed that traditional Confucianism was a barrier to adopting new ideas and institutions.
• The Abolition of Examination System: The Chinese examination system that had historically granted access to the ruling class was abolished in 1905, signaling a shift away from traditional governance.

Establishing the Republic

Sun Yat-sen and the Birth of Modern China: In 1911, the Manchu empire in China was overthrown, and a republic was established under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, who is often regarded as the founder of modern China. 

• • Sun Yat-sen came from a humble background and was educated in missionary schools, where he was introduced to democratic ideals and Christianity. 
• The Three Principles of Sun Yat-sen: His political program was known as the Three Principles, which included nationalism (overthrowing the foreign Manchu dynasty and other imperialist powers), democracy (establishing democratic governance), and socialism (regulating capital and redistributing landholdings).
• The 4th May Movement (1919): It evolved into a broader movement that aimed to challenge tradition and advocate for modern science, democracy, and nationalism. 
• The New Wave of Chinese Revolutionaries: The new generation of revolutionaries called for ousting foreign powers, addressing inequality and poverty, and implementing reforms such as using plain language in writing, ending foot-binding, promoting gender equality, and pursuing economic development.
• Post-Revolutionary Turmoil: After the republican revolution, China entered a period of turmoil, with two major forces, the Guomindang (National People’s Party) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), working to unify the country and establish stability.
• Chiang Kai-shek’s Era: Chiang Kai-shek, who succeeded Sun Yat-sen, led the Guomindang and aimed to centralize authority by subduing regional warlords and eliminating the communists. 
  • His approach included promoting a secular Confucianism, militarization, and the imposition of strict behavioral norms, especially for women.
• Guomindang’s Urban Base: The Guomindang’s social base was in urban areas. Industrial growth was slow and limited. 
  • Shanghai’s Industrial Landscape: In cities such as Shanghai, which became the centres of modern growth, however, only a small percentage were employed in modern industries such as shipbuilding. 
  • The Plight of Urban Workers: Most were ‘petty urbanites’ (xiao shimin), traders and shopkeepers. Urban workers, particularly women, earned very low wages. 
    • Working hours were long and conditions of work were bad. 
    • As individualism increased, there was a growing concern with women’s rights, ways to build the family and discussions about love and romance.
• Changing Social Landscape: The spread of schools and universities, along with flourishing journalism and publications like Life Weekly edited by Zao Taofen (1895-1944), facilitated social and cultural change, reflecting the growing attraction to new and progressive ideas. 
  • It introduced readers to new ideas, as well as to leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Kemal Ataturk ( The modernist leader of Turkey)

Conclusion

China’s journey to modernity involved significant social, political, and economic transformations. From the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty to the rise of the Guomindang and the Communist Party, China navigated through foreign oppression, internal conflicts, and profound societal changes, laying the groundwork for its contemporary development.