When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the Guomindang retreated. The long and exhausting war weakened China. Prices rose 30 per cent per month between 1945 and 1949, and utterly destroyed the lives of ordinary people. Rural China faced two crises: one ecological, with soil exhaustion, deforestation, and floods, and the second, a socio-economic one caused by exploitative land-tenure systems, indebtedness, primitive technology, and poor communications

• During this time, the Chinese economy faced hyperinflation, causing severe hardships for ordinary people. 
• Rural China was grappling with two major crises: 
  • ecological issues like soil exhaustion, deforestation, and floods, and 
  • socio-economic problems arising from exploitative land-tenure systems, indebtedness, primitive agricultural technology, and limited communication networks.
• The Rise and Fall of the Comintern: The success of the Russian Revolution had a profound impact globally, and the Comintern (or Third International), established in 1918, aimed to support communist movements worldwide in pursuit of a global government that would end exploitation. 
  • While the Comintern and the Soviet Union initially enjoyed great appeal across national borders, they eventually became tools for advancing Soviet interests and were dissolved in 1943.
• The Birth of the Chinese Communist Party: The CCP was founded in 1921, soon after the Russian Revolution. 
• Mao’s Embrace of Rural Revolution: Mao Zedong, a key leader of the CCP, adopted a unique approach to revolution by focusing on the peasantry as the driving force. 
  • His emphasis on rural revolution made the CCP a potent political entity that ultimately emerged victorious against the Guomindang.
• Establishing Peasants’ Councils: In Jiangxi, from 1928 to 1934, the CCP established a strong peasants’ council (soviets) by redistributing land among the peasants. 
• Mao’s Vision for Independence: Mao Zedong’s approach emphasized the need for an independent government and army. 
  • He also recognized women’s issues and supported the formation of rural women’s associations, introduced a new marriage law that prohibited arranged marriages, abolished the sale of marriage contracts, and simplified divorce.
• The Long March: The Guomindang’s blockade of the CCP’s Soviet prompted the Communists to embark on the Long March (1934-35), covering approximately 6,000 grueling miles to Shanxi, where they established a new base in Yanan. 
• Consolidating Revolution in Yanan: They further developed their revolutionary program, aiming to end warlordism, implement land reforms, and oppose foreign imperialism, which strengthened their social base. 
• From Cooperation to Confrontation: The CCP and Guomindang cooperated during the challenging years of the war, but the Communists seized power after the conflict’s conclusion, leading to the defeat of the Guomindang.

Establishing the New Democracy: 1949-65

Birth of the People’s Republic: The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, and founded on the principles of “New Democracy,” which aimed to ally with all social classes, in contrast to the “dictatorship of the proletariat” adopted by the Soviet Union. 

• Economic Transformation: This approach brought key sectors of the economy under government control and gradually eliminated private enterprise and private land ownership. 
• Great Leap Forward (1958): In 1958, the Great Leap Forward movement was initiated to accelerate industrialization by encouraging people to set up small-scale steel furnaces in their backyards. 
  • Rural areas saw the introduction of people’s communes, where land was collectively owned and cultivated. 
  • By 1958, there were 26,000 communes covering 98 percent of the rural population.
• Mao’s Vision for Socialist Transformation: Mao Zedong focused on creating a “socialist man” with a deep commitment to the fatherland, people, labor, science, and public property. 
  • Building Solidarity: Numerous mass organizations were established for various social groups, such as farmers, women, and students. 
    • Example:  All-China Democratic Women’s Federation had 76 million members, and the All-China Students Federation had 3.29 million members.
  • Shift in Priorities: By 1953-54, some Party members advocated for greater emphasis on industrial organization and economic growth. 
    • Leaders like Liu Shaochi and Deng Xiaoping attempted to modify the commune system as it was not proving efficient, and the steel produced in backyard furnaces was unsuitable for industrial use.

Conflicting Visions: 1965-78

The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution: The conflict between Maoists and those who objected to this approach culminated in Mao launching the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965 to counter his critics. 

• Red Guards: During this period, the Red Guards, primarily composed of students and the military, were employed in a campaign against traditional culture, customs, and habits. 
  • Ideological Mobilization: Students and professionals were sent to rural areas to learn from the masses, and adherence to Communist ideology took precedence over professional expertise, with denunciations and slogans replacing rational debate.
• Cultural Revolution Fallout: The Cultural Revolution initiated a period of upheaval, leading to a weakened Communist Party, and severe disruptions in the economy, and the educational system. 
• Changing Course: By the late 1960s, there was a gradual shift in the tide, and by 1975, the Party refocused its priorities on instilling greater social discipline and the need to build a strong industrial economy to position China as a global power by the end of the century.

Conclusion

The establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 marked a new era of social and economic transformation. Through policies like the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, the CCP sought to reshape Chinese society, despite facing internal conflicts and disruptions. By the late 1970s, the focus shifted towards industrial growth and global positioning.