King Taejo’s rise to power marked the start of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), and Korea’s position as a tributary state to Ming China offered a period of relative peace. In the late nineteenth century, Korea faced internal political conflicts and increased external pressure from China, Japan, and Western countries. To address these challenges, Korea initiated modernization reforms encompassing various aspects of its government, diplomatic relationships, infrastructure, and society. 

Korea: Annexation to Division  

Annexation: Despite these efforts,  Japan annexed Korea as its colony in 1910, bringing an end to the Joseon Dynasty.

• Korean Resistance and Reaction:  Korean people strongly opposed Japan’s suppression of their culture and forced assimilation policies. 
  • Desire for Independence:  Koreans demonstrated against foreign colonial rule by establishing a provisional government.
  • They sent delegations to appeal to foreign leaders at international conferences, including the Cairo, Yalta, and Potsdam conferences.
• Liberation: Japan’s colonial rule finally ended in August 1945 when Japan was defeated in World War II.
• Division of Peninsula: Post liberation, Korean Peninsula was temporarily divided along 38th parallel, with Soviet Union managing North and  United Nations overseeing South. 
  • The division later became permanent, establishing separate governments in the North and the South in 1948.

A Post-War Nation

Korean War:  It erupted in June 1950, becoming a proxy war of  Cold War era. South Korea received support from USA-led UN Forces, while North Korea was backed by communist China. 

• • Three years of conflict ended with an armistice agreement in July 1953, resulting in the ongoing division of Korea. 
• Impact of War: It caused a surge in inflation due to increased wartime spending and currency issuance.
  • Wartime destruction of industrial facilities forced South Korea to rely heavily on U.S. economic assistance.
• Demise of Democracy:  Syngman Rhee, had been democratically elected as South Korea’s first president in 1948 despite this he extended his presidency through illegal constitutional amendments. 
  • It caused public outrage, culminating in April Revolution of 1960 and Rhee’s forced resignation.
  • Democratic Party (assumed power after Rhee’s resignation) struggled to adequately address citizen demands due to internal conflicts. 
• Military Intervention: Reformist political movements and student movements evolved into a unification movement, which was not perceived favorably by military authorities. 
  • May 1961, a military coup, led by General Park Chung-hee and other military figures, overthrew Democratic Party government.

Rapid Industrialisation under Strong Leadership

Nature of Economic Policy: Park Chung-hee (newly elected President of South Korea, October 1963 administration implemented a state-led, export-oriented economic policy to achieve rapid economic growth. 

• • Its five-year economic plans focused on supporting large corporate firms, expanding employment opportunities, and enhancing Korea’s competitiveness.
• South Korea’s Economic Transformation: It started in early 1960s when government shifted from an import substitution industrialization (ISI) strategy to an export-oriented approach. 
  • Under this new policy, government provided support for labor-intensive light industries like textiles and garments, capitalizing on Korea’s comparative advantage. 
• New Sectors: In late 1960s and 1970s, focus transitioned from light industries to value-added heavy and chemical industries. 
  • Key sectors included steel, non-ferrous metals, machinery, shipbuilding, electronics, and chemical production.
• New Village (Saemaul) Movement, 1970: It was introduced to empower rural residents to take an active role in developing their villages and improving living conditions. 
  • South Korea has since shared principles of Saemaul Movement with developing countries looking to adopt similar strategies in their development efforts.
• Drivers of Innovation and Growth: A high literacy rate among Korean workers, combined with country’s open economic policies, allowed for absorption of advanced technologies and institutions from other countries. 
  • Foreign investment, a high domestic savings rate, and remittances from South Korean workers overseas also contributed to economic development.
• Development vs Democracy: Park implemented the Yusin Constitution in October 1972, which granted president complete authority over legislation, jurisdiction, and administration, allowing for a permanent presidency.
  • While economic development progressed, democracy took a back seat as the president wielded absolute authority.
  • Under this constitution, president had the power to repeal any law as an “emergency measure.”
• Economic Challenge: Second oil crisis in 1979 created obstacles for government’s economic policy, especially in overinvested heavy chemical industry. 
• Social Unrest: Public opposition to  Yusin Constitution grew, leading to ongoing demonstrations against the administration’s emergency measures and suppression of dissent.
• End of Park’s Era: Amidst economic challenges and political instability, Park Chung-hee’s presidency came to an end with his assassination in October 1979.
  • Following the death of Park Chung-hee, there was a growing desire for democratization in South Korea.

Continued Economic Growth and Calls for Democratisation

Military Coups and Protests: In December 1979, another military coup took place, led by Chun Doo-hwan. 

• • In May 1980, students and citizens throughout the country organized protests demanding democracy in face of Chun’s military faction.
  • The military faction responded by imposing martial law nationwide. 
• Gwangju Democratization Movement, 1980: In the city of Gwangju, in particular, students and citizens continued their protests and demanded an end to martial law. 
  • Chun’s military faction suppressed protests, and Chun became president through an indirect election under the Yusin Constitution.
• Period of Authoritarian Rule:  Chun administration further intensified its suppression of democratization movements to stabilize regime. 
  • During this period, international economic boom allowed  Chun government to achieve significant economic growth, raising it from 1.7% in 1980 to 13.2% by 1983, while also reducing inflation. 
  • Economic development resulted in urbanization, improved education levels, and advancements in media. 
• Awakening of Political Consciousness: As a result of economic development, citizens became more aware of their political rights, leading to demands for a constitutional amendment that would allow for direct election of president.
  • In May 1987, Chun administration’s attempts to downplay an investigation into death of a university student due to torture became widely known. 
  • This led to a large-scale struggle for democratization. 
• June Democracy Movement: It involved not only students but also the middle class; efforts forced the Chun administration to amend the constitution, allowing for direct elections.
  • It marked the beginning of a new era of Korean democracy. 

Korean Democracy and the IMF Crisis

Democratization: First direct presidential election since 1971 took place in December 1987, following the adoption of a new constitution in South Korea.

• • Roh Tae-woo, a fellow military leader from Chun’s faction, was elected as president due to absence of a united front opposition parties. 
  • However, it marked a significant step in South Korea’s path to democracy.
• End of Military Rule: In 1990, long-time opposition leader Kim Young-sam reached a compromise with Roh’s party, leading to  creation of a large ruling party. 
  • Kim, a civilian, was elected as president in December 1992, bringing an end to decades of military rule and further solidifying democracy.
• Global Integration:  Under the new administration’s export-driven policy, several South Korean companies rose to global prominence. 
  • Government provided support for Korean conglomerates investing in capital-intensive heavy and chemical industries and electronic industries while focusing on building industrial and social infrastructure.
• Joining OECD:  Facing pressure to open its market, South Korea joined Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1996, aiming to enhance international competitiveness. 
•  Foreign Currency Crisis: Country encountered in 1997 due to trade deficits, financial institution mismanagement, and reckless business operations by conglomerates. 
  • This crisis was resolved with emergency financial assistance from International Monetary Fund (IMF). 
  • Citizens also actively contributed to foreign loan repayment through Gold Collection Movement.
• First Peaceful Transfer of Power: In December 1997, long-time opposition party leader Kim Dae-jung was elected as the president, marking a peaceful transfer of power. 
• Second Peaceful Transfer of Power: This Occurred in 2008 when conservative Lee Myung-bak was elected, following the progressive Roh Mu-hyun administration. 
  • In 2012, conservative Park Geun-hye was elected as South Korea’s first female president. Her presidency initially gained support due to her father’s political legacy, Park Chung-hee. 
• Third Peaceful Transfer of Power:  Park Geun-Hye’s involvement in a scandal in which a friend secretly managed government affairs led to her impeachment from office in March 2017
  • In May 2017, Moon Jae-in was elected as the president, marking a peaceful transfer of power for third time. 

Conclusion 

South Korea’s transformation since 1980s showcases a vibrant democracy. Peaceful transfers of power and the 2016 candlelight protests, in which citizens demonstrated peacefully within the boundaries of democratic law and systems, highlight its maturity. This commitment to democratic processes ensures a strong foundation for South Korea’s future.