Relations of British India with Neighboring Countries: Geopolitics & Diplomacy

Introduction

The borders of British India touched various countries including Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma (now Myanmar), and Persia (now Iran). These relationships were influenced by a combination of geopolitical interests, economic considerations, strategic alliances, and colonial policies.  The interactions of British India with Neighboring Countries shaped regional dynamics, trade networks, and diplomatic engagements, leaving a lasting impact on the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent and beyond.

Anglo-Bhutanese Relations

• Border Incidents: The British and the mountain nation of Bhutan became close after the British took over Assam in 1826. 
  • This led to frequent raids by Bhutanese into neighboring territories in Bengal and Assam. 
• Annexation of Passes by the British: Along with the above, it was due to the harsh treatment Elgin’s envoy received in 1863–1864, and the treaty imposed on him forcing the British to cede the passes leading to Assam that led to the British annexing these passes.
  • The Bhutanese were made to give up the passes in 1865 in exchange for an annual subsidy.

Anglo-Nepalese Relations 

• Convergence of Boundaries: When the English annexed Gorakhpur in 1801, the boundaries of the Company and the Gorkhas converged.  
  • The Gorkha’s capture of Butwal and Sheoraj during Lord Hastings‘ reign (1813–23) was the catalyst for the conflict. 
• Treaty of Sagauli: The war ended in the Treaty of Sagauli in 1816 which made Nepal accept a British resident.
  • Nepal had to cede districts of Garhwal and Kumaon, abandon claims to Terai as well as withdraw from Sikkim.
• Ramifications of the Treaty for the British: The British gained a lot due to this treaty as now it could trade better with Central Asia, it acquired sites for hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie and Nainital. 
  • Also, the Gorkhas joined the British Indian army in large numbers after this treaty. 

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Anglo-Burmese Relations 

• Three Anglo-Burmese Wars and Burma’s eventual annexation into British India in 1885.
• It was the result of the British Empire’s expansionist desires, which were stoked by the allure of Burma’s forest resources. 
• The need to check French ambitions in Burma and the rest of South-East Asia, and the market for British manufactures in Burma.

First Burma War (1824-26)

• Conflict Between Bengal and Burma: It was fought as tensions along the ill-defined border between Bengal and Burma increased due to the Burmese occupation of Arakan and Manipur, their westward expansion, and their threat to Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley.
• Treaty of Yandabo: Eventually, the British occupied Rangoon and other areas. Then, the Treaty of Yandabo was signed in 1826, which imposed certain conditions on the Government of Burma. 
  • Pay one crore rupees as war compensation,
  • The provisions of the treaty made Burma cede its coastal provinces of Arakan & Tenasserim, 
  • Abandon its claims on Assam, Cachar and Jaintia, 
  • Recognise Manipur as an independent state and negotiate a commercial treaty with the British along with accepting a British resident at its capital Ava. 

Second Burma War (1852) 

• Lord Dalhousie‘s imperialist policies and British commercial needs led to the second world war. 
• The British traders were eager to acquire access to upper Burma’s timber resources and pursued deeper penetration into the Burmese market.
• The British now occupied Pegu, the only remaining coastal province of Burma, and established complete control of lower Burma. 

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Third Burma War (1885) 

• Burmese King Bhindan’s son Thibaw ascended to the throne following his death. 
• Thibaw was antagonistic toward the British from the start and was negotiating commercial treaties with their rivals such as France, Germany and Italy. 
• Final Annexation: Lord Dufferin ordered the final annexation of Upper Burma in 1885, and complete control was established after fighting a strong guerrilla uprising. 
• Separation of Burma: Later, Burma was separated from India in 1935  to divide the nationalist movement. 

Anglo-Tibetan Relations

• Growing Russian Influence: The Russian influence in Lhasa was growing, and the Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was ineffectual. 
• Curzon’s Response: There had been rumours of Russian weapons and ammo entering Tibet. 
  • Alarmed, Curzon dispatched a small Gorkha contingent to Tibet on a special mission led by Colonel Younghusband to pressure the Tibetans into reaching a settlement. 
• Tibetans’ Response: The Tibetans proposed non-violent resistance and declined to engage in dialogue. The Dalai Lama fled as Younghusband forced his way into Lhasa in August of 1904.
• Treaty of Lhasa (1904): It was signed wherein Younghusband dictated terms to Tibet. 
  • Tibet would pay an indemnity of 75 lakh rupees at the rate of one lakh rupees per annum,
  • Tibet was to pay a war indemnity, and the British would occupy Chumbi Valley as security for payment. 
  • Tibet was to respect the frontier of Sikkim and ensure that it would not grant any concessions to any other foreign power. 
• Benefits to China: In the end, only China benefited from the entire situation because the Anglo-Russian convention of 1907 stipulated that the two powers would only engage in negotiations with Tibet through the Chinese government’s intermediary role. 
• Curzon’s strategy, however, defeated every Russian plan in Tibet.

Anglo-Afghan Relations 

• Forward Policy of Auckland (1836): It implied that the Company was to take initiatives to protect the boundary of British India from a probable Russian attack using either treaties or complete annexation. 
• Tripartite Treaty (1838): It was entered into by the British, the Sikhs and Shah Shuja, wherein Shah Shuja was to be enthroned and conduct foreign affairs with the advice of the British. 
  • It also helped maintain peace between the Sikhs and the Afghans. 
• The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42): It was a result of the above-mentioned forward policy, wherein the British intention was to establish a permanent barrier against aggression from the north-west. 
  • While the English were able to march into Kabul and make Shah Shuja the Amir of Afghanistan, the Afghans did not accept Shah Shuja and rose up in rebellion. 
  • Thus, the British agreed to evacuate Afghanistan and restored the earlier ruler Dost Mohammed. 
• Policy of Masterly Inactivity: In response to the disaster of the First Afghan War started by John Lawrence. He did not interfere in the war of succession when Dost Mohammed died. 
  • The key conditions behind this policy were that peace at the frontier was not disturbed, and no candidate in the civil war had sought foreign help. 
• Policy of Proud Reserve: Devised by Lytton, which aimed at having scientific frontiers and safeguarding ‘spheres of influence’. 
  • Lytton wanted to bring clarity to the ambiguous situation in Afghanistan. 
• Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-80):  Amir wanted to remain friends with both Russia and British India. 
  • Later, Sher Ali (the Amir) refused to keep a British Envoy, whereas earlier Russians were granted the same privilege.
  • Lytton decided to invade, and Sher Ali fled Afghanistan. 
• Treaty of Gandamak (1879): It was signed between the British and Yakub Khan, the eldest son of Sher Ali. 
  • It provided that the Amir shall conduct his foreign policy on the advice of the British, a permanent British resident was to be stationed at Kabul, and the Government of India was to provide Amir with all support against foreign aggression. 
• Afghanistan as a Buffer State: Later, instability returned to Afghanistan, and Lytton was unsuccessful in dismembering Afghanistan. 
  • Eventually, Lord Ripon abandoned this plan and decided to keep Afghanistan as a buffer state. 
• Durand Line: It was devised as a boundary line between the Afghan and the British territories. However, it could not keep the peace for long (Viceroy Lord Lansdowne)
• Role of Curzon (1899-1905): Followed a policy of withdrawal and concentration wherein he trained the tribals and brought the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) under the direct control of the Government of India. 
• Afghanistan’s Quest for Independence: Following World War I and the 1917 Russian Revolution, the Afghans sought complete independence. 
  • Following the death of Habibullah in 1919, Amamullah, the new ruler, declared an open war on the British. 
  • Habibullah had succeeded Abdur Rahman in 1901. 
  • Peace came in 1921 when Afghanistan recovered independence in foreign affairs.

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Conclusion

• The relations of British India with neighboring countries were characterized by complex dynamics, including strategic alliances, conflicts, and diplomatic negotiations. 
• These interactions were influenced by colonial ambitions, regional power struggles, and the pursuit of economic interests.