Later Vedic Economy: Agriculture, Trade & Metallurgy

Introduction

The Later Vedic Period (c. 1000-500 BCE) marked a significant juncture in the economic landscape of ancient India, witnessing notable developments in agricultural practices, trade networks, and economic organization. During this era, economic activities played a crucial role in shaping societal structures and facilitating cultural exchange.

Key Characteristics of Later Vedic Period Economy

• Agriculture, though primitive, emerged as the primary livelihood practice.
  •  Tree clearing through burning and plough-based cultivation were elaborated in Satapatha Brahmana.
  • Few agricultural tools made of iron have been found, but wooden plough was extensively used. 
• The Vedic people cultivated barley, rice and wheat. 
  • Wheat was the staple food of the Punjab region. 
  • The Vedic people began to use rice in the Ganga-Yamuna doab. 
  • The use of rice, rather than wheat, is noticed in the Vedic rituals.
• Mixed farming (a combination of cultivation and herding) was practised.

• Oxen-drawn wagons were a prevalent mode of transport.
• Land was owned by a community over which the ‘vish’ (clan) had participatory rights.
• Grahpati (head of the household) was the owner of the land.
• Exchange continued through barter. “Nishka” was a gold or silver ornament used in barter. 
• Shreni was an association of traders, merchants, and artisans that was headed by a Shreshthi.
• Taxation: Unlike the Rig Vedic Age, collecting taxes and tributes was made mandatory, primarily from the Vaishyas, facilitated by Sangrihitri (tax collector).
• Trade and exchange had developed in the Later Vedic age. The material culture found in the archaeological sites reveals the movement of commodities and materials. Specialised caravan traders existed. 

Knowledge of Metals in Later Vedic Period Economy

• Use of iron was started around 1200 BC, and it was termed Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas.
  • Around 1000 BC, it was used in the Gandhara area, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP, and Rajasthan.
  • Excavations reveal the use of iron weapons by the Aryans, like arrowheads and spearheads, in western UP from about 800 BC onwards.
  • The iron axe was used to clear the forests in the upper Gangetic basin. Towards the end of the Vedic period, knowledge of iron spread in eastern UP and Videha (Mithila region).
• Metals such as copper, tin, gold, bronze and lead are mentioned.
  • The copper objects were used for making weapons for war and hunting.
• Glass manufacturing was known to them.

Arts and Crafts of Later Vedic Period Economy

• Four main types of pottery were prevalent during this period: (1) Painted Grey Ware; (2) Black and Red Ware; (3) Black-slipped Ware; (4) Red Ware
• They hardly knew the use of burnt bricks.
• Weaving, leatherwork, pottery, and carpentry were well known. 
  • Terms such as Kulala, referring to potters and Urna sutra, referring to wool, appear. 
• Bow makers, rope makers, arrow makers, hide dressers, stone breakers, physicians, goldsmiths, and astrologers are some of the specialised professional groups mentioned in the texts. 
• Professions such as physicians, washermen, hunters, boatmen, astrologers and cooks are mentioned.
• The performers of Vedic sacrifices were also a type of service provider.
• References to the elephant are often found in the Atharva Veda, along with the elephant keeper.

Conclusion

• The Later Vedic Period Economy Witnessed a burgeoning economy characterized by advancements in agriculture, expansion of trade routes, and the emergence of urban centers. 
  • These economic developments laid the foundation for subsequent periods of Indian history, influencing patterns of commerce, social stratification, and cultural exchange.