Muvendar: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas – Pillars of Ancient South India

In ancient South India, the Muvendar, comprising the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, formed a powerful triumvirate. The Cholas, centered in present-day Tamil Nadu, boasted of a robust navy and significant military conquests under kings like Karikalan. The Cheras, ruling over Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu, and the Pandyas, based in Madurai, left their marks through trade and warfare. This era, marked by dynamic kingdoms and cultural advancements, laid the groundwork for the richness of South Indian history.

An Overview of Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas

A. The Cholas

• Territorial Dominion: They ruled central and northern Tamil Nadu, including the Kaveri Delta, later known as Cholamandalam or Coromandel. They were situated in the North-east of Pandyas between the Pennar and Vellar rivers.
• Capital City: Uraiyur, near Thiruchirapalli town (Known for the Cotton trade).
• First Monarch: The first monarch to rule from Uriyur was Uruvappahrer Ilam Set Senni.
• Port Town: Puhar, or Kaviripattinam, was an alternative royal residence and chief port town. [UPSC 2023]
• Naval Strength: They kept an efficient navy that sailed as far as the mouth of Ganga, Irrawady and Malay archipelago.
• KARIKALAN (famous Chola king)
  • Period: lived around 100 AD and was also known as Tirumavalan.
  • Capital Transfer: He transferred the capital to Puhar (also called Poompuhar).
  • Patronage of Poets: Rewarded poets generously with cash, gold, land, chariots, horses, and elephants.
    • Pattinappalai by poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar described that trade prospered under him. 
  • Military achievements: He defeated Cheras (Perum Cheralathan) and Pandyas, with support from 11 Velir chieftains at the Battle of Venni.
  • Second Battle Success: In the 2nd battle at Vagaipparandalai, he defeated Nine Princes.
  • Political Influence: He exerted pressure on the Pallavas of Kanchi and Kurumbras, making them acknowledge Chola’s suzerainty.
    • He converted forests into habitable areas. 
  • Infrastructure Projects: He built many irrigation tanks and the Killanai dam (Grand Anicut) across the Kaveri River.
  • Agricultural Advancements: He also advanced agriculture via the Kaveri embankment and built reservoirs.
  • Succession Dispute: Karikalan’s death led to a succession dispute between the Puhar and Uraiyur Chola branches.
• Weakening of Chola Influence: The Cholas weakened as the Cheras and Pandyas expanded. Pallavas further diminished their influence from the 4th to 9th century AD.

B. The Cheras

• • Territorial Governance: Cheras governed the central and northern Kerala and Kongu regions in Tamil Nadu.
  • Two Main Chera Branches: The first branch ruled Vanji, and the second Poraiya branch ruled Karur.
  • Control of Ports: Controlled west coast ports like Musiri and Tondi.
  • Historical Inscriptions: Pugalur inscriptions near Karur mention 3 generations of Chera kings.
  • Prominent Kings: include Imayavaramban, Nedun-cheralathan and Senguttuvan.
  • Literary References: Patitrupathu provides a description of 8 Chera kings, their territories, and their fame.
  • Coinage Innovation: Chellirumporai minted coins in his name.
    • Some Chera kings issued copper and lead coins with Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman coins.
  • Decline of Chera Rule: After the 2nd century, the Chera kingdom declined.

• Important Chera Kings:

C. The Pandyas

• • Early Mentions by Megasthenes: Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who said their kingdom was famous for pearls. He also described Pandyan society as being matriarchal.
  • Territory: Southernmost and south-eastern parts of the Indian Peninsula, with the capital at Madurai. They invaded Southern Kerala and controlled the port of Nelkynda near Kottayam.
  • Main port: Korkai (located near the confluence of Tampraparani with the Bay of Bengal) [UPSC 2023]
  • Periplus Mention of Korkai: Korkai is mentioned in the Periplus as “Kolkoi“, known for pearl fishery and chank diving.
  • Trade: The Pandyas benefited from trade with Rome and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus.
  • Horses were imported by sea into the kingdom.
  • Decline of Pandyas: The Pandyan rule began to decline due to the invasions of the Kalabhras.

• Important Pandya Kings

• Summary

D. Age Of Kalabhras (Post Sangam Period)

• The Kalabhra Age: The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya era (approximately 300 AD to 600 AD) is known as the Kalabhra age in Tamil history.
• Literary Flourishing: It was during this period that significant Tamil literary works were produced, including the Tirukkural, Silappathikaram, and Manimekalai.
• Influence of Jainism and Buddhism: As Jainism and Buddhism gained influence, leading orthodox Vedic-Puranic scholars depicted the Kalabhra rulers negatively. 
• Overthrow by the Pandyas: The Kalabhra kingdom was eventually overthrown by the Pandyas in the mid-sixth century AD.
• Reevaluation of the ‘Dark Age’ Narrative: Traditionally, it is considered a ‘dark age’ or interregnum due to the disappearance of the three traditional Tamil kingdoms. 
  • It was also supposed that many good traits of earlier Tamil culture disappeared in this interval. 
  • However, this idea of interregnum is no longer accepted as correct.
• Transition Period: Recent interpretations view this era as a transition period, with the emergence of larger state societies under the Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in the south.

Conclusion

The Muvendar—Chola, Chera, and Pandya—ushered in an era of prosperity and cultural richness in ancient South India. Their reigns marked significant advancements in trade, agriculture, and maritime affairs, leaving behind a legacy of resilience and innovation. While the Kalabhra age temporarily disrupted their dominance, it paved the way for the rise of larger state societies under subsequent dynasties like the Pallavas and Pandyas, shaping the historical trajectory of the region.