Peasant Struggles In Colonial India (1857–1947)

Introduction 

The impoverishment of the Indian peasantry during colonial rule resulted from a complex interplay of factors, including colonial economic policies, handicraft decline, the new land revenue system, and the administrative and judicial framework.

Causes of Peasant Movements

• Peasants struggles included exorbitant rents, illegal levies, and arbitrary evictions. 
• In Zamindari areas, unpaid labor was common, while Ryotwari areas saw heavy government-imposed land revenue.
• Overburdened farmers sought relief from local moneylenders, often leading to land and cattle mortgages. 

Consequences of Peasant Movements

• This led to actual cultivators becoming tenants-at-will, sharecroppers, or landless labourers and added in the numerous peasant struggles.
• Peasants resisted exploitation, sometimes resorting to crime, including robbery and dacoity that increased peasant struggles.

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Survey of Early Peasant Movements

• Indigo Revolt (1859–60) [UPSC 2020]

  • Exploitative Practices of European Indigo Planters: European indigo planters in Bengal exploited local peasant resistance, forcing them to cultivate indigo instead of more profitable crops like rice which also increased peasant struggles.
    • The planters used coercive tactics such as advancing sums and fraudulent contracts to trap peasants.
    • Planters used a variety of violent tactics to scare the peasants, including kidnappings, flogging, unlawful detentions, attacks on women and children, cattle seizures, house demolition and burning, and crop destruction.
  • Peasant Resistance (1859): It was led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas of Nadia district and resisted growing indigo under duress.
    • The resistance involved countering physical pressure from planters, going on a rent strike, by refusing to pay the enhanced rents, and organizing against attacks with the support of the Bengali intelligentsia. This significantly increased peasant struggles.
    • The Bengali intelligentsia was instrumental in advancing the cause of the peasants by drafting memoranda outlining their grievances, organizing large-scale gatherings, supporting them in court cases, and running newspaper campaigns.
    • The government appointed an Indigo commission, leading to a November 1860 notification that protected peasants from being compelled to grow indigo.
    • By the end of 1860, factories were closing, and indigo cultivation was virtually eradicated in Bengal.

• Pabna Agrarian Leagues

  • Oppressive Practices of Zamindars in Eastern Bengal: Zamindars in Eastern Bengal practised oppressive rent increases and denied tenants occupancy rights under Act X of 1859.
    • They employed tactics such as forcible evictions, seizure of cattle and crops, and prolonged litigation.
  • Formation of Agrarian League: Peasants formed an agrarian league in Yusuf Shahi Pargana in Pabna district to resist zamindar demands. 
    • The league organized a rent strike, refusing to pay enhanced rents and challenging zamindars in court.
    • Peasants engaged in legal resistance, raising funds for court cases. 
  • Bengal Tenancy Act (1885): The government responded with the Bengal Tenancy Act in 1885, offering legislative protection against zamindari oppression.
  • Support of Young Indian Intellectuals: Young Indian intellectuals like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C.Dutt and the Indian Association under Surendranath Banerjea supported the peasants’ cause.

• Deccan Riots (1874)

  • Challenges Faced by Peasants: Peasant struggles in the Deccan region included heavy taxation under the Ryotwari system.
    • Outside moneylenders, mainly Marwaris or Gujaratis, also exploited them.
  • Factors Worsening the Agricultural Situation: The collapse of cotton prices following the American Civil War’s conclusion in 1864, 
    • The government’s decision to increase land revenue by fifty per cent in 1867, 
    • A string of poor harvests had worsened the situation alongside the ongoing peasant struggles.
  • Social Boycott and Agrarian Riots (1874): The growing tension led to a social boycott and the Agrarian Riots (1874) against outsider moneylenders. 
    • The barbers, washermen, and shoemakers would not serve them.
    • This social boycott spread rapidly to the villages of Poona, Ahmednagar, Sholapur, and Satara. 
    • Soon, the social boycott was transformed into agrarian riots with systematic attacks on the moneylenders’ houses and shops. 
    • The debt bonds and deeds were seized and publicly burnt.
  • Conciliatory Measures: The government repressed the movement and as a conciliatory measure, the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act in 1879 was passed for the peasant struggles.
  • The intelligentsia of Maharashtra also supported the peasants’ cause.

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• Peasant Movements after 1857

• • Peasants emerged as the main force, focusing on economic issues against immediate enemies.
  • Movements had specific objectives, centered on redressing particular grievances including peasant struggles in colonial India.
  • Territorial reach was limited, lacking continuity or long-term organization.

•  Weaknesses:

  • Lack of understanding of colonialism and a new ideology.
  • Struggles occurred within the old societal order without a positive vision for an alternative society.
  • In the span from 1857 to 1947, peasant movements in colonial India reflected economic grievances, localized resistance, and a gradual evolution in the nature of protests.

• The Kisan Sabha Movement (1918–1921)

  • Resurgence of Awadh Taluqdars: After the 1857 revolt, Awadh taluqdars regained control, imposing high rents and oppressive practices on cultivators similar to peasant struggles. In colonial India.
  • Emergence of Kisan Sabhas: Home Rule activists spurred the formation of Kisan Sabhas in Uttar Pradesh. 
  • United Provinces Kisan Sabha: Established by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi in February 1918. 
    • Madan Mohan Malaviya also supported their efforts. 
    • UP Kisan Sabha expanded to 450 branches by June 1919.
    • Other leaders associated with this movement include Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh, and Baba Ramchandra. 
  • Baba Ramchandra’s invitation led Nehru to visit villages, fostering connections with villagers.

• Awadh Kisan Sabha (October 1920)

  • Origin: Differences in nationalist ranks led to the creation of the Awadh Kisan Sabha in October 1920 due to the peasant struggles in colonial India.
  • Key Initiatives: The Sabha urged peasants to refuse till bedakhali land, not to offer hari and beggar (unpaid labour), boycott non-compliant individuals, and resolve disputes through panchayats.
  • Transformation of the Movement: From mass meetings, the movement evolved into looting, clashes, and disruptions, primarily in Rai Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur.
  • The movement declined due to government repression. The Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act further contributed to the decline, leading to the movement’s eventual end. 

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• Eka Movement (1921–1922)

  • Rising Discontent: In late 1921, discontent emerged in the northern districts of United peasants (Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur) over high rents, thikadar oppression, and share-rent practices.
  • Resistance Strategies: Peasants engaged in symbolic rituals and pledged to pay recorded rents on time, resist eviction, refuse forced labour, shun criminals, and adhere to panchayat decisions.
  • It was led by Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders. 
  • Government Repression: The movement faced severe repression by authorities by March 1922, ultimately coming to an end and impacting peasant struggles.

• Mappila Revolt (1921)

  • Oppression of Mappila: In the Malabar region during the 19th century, Muslim tenants known as Mappilas faced oppression from predominantly Hindu landlords. 
  • Roots of Discontent: Their discontent stemmed from issues such as insecure tenures, high rents, and oppressive fees. 
  • Congress Support and Alignment: Mappilas found support in the local Congress body, which advocated for government legislation to regulate tenant-landlord relations. 
    • This alignment laid the groundwork for their involvement in the Khilafat agitation for the ongoing peasant stuggles.
  • Unified Struggle: The Mappila movement joined forces with the Khilafat agitation, gaining endorsement from leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, and Maulana Azad.
  • Escalation: With the arrest of national leaders, local Mappila leaders assumed control, steering the movement independently. 
    • In August 1921, the arrest of the respected priest leader, Ali Musaliar, triggered widespread riots and increased peasant struggles.
  • Evolution of Targets: Initially, symbols of British authority and unpopular Hindu landlords were the primary targets. 
    • As the British imposed martial law and repression intensified, the Mappila rebellion transformed. 
    • Hindus, perceived as aiding the authorities, became targets.
  • Communal Shift: The communal turn isolated the Mappilas from the broader Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement. 
    • By December 1921, the rebellion, marked by communal tensions, came to a halt, signalling the end of Mappila resistance.

• Bardoli Satyagraha (1926–1928)

• • Political Awakening: The Bardoli taluka in Surat district underwent significant politicization with Gandhi’s emergence on the national political stage.
  • Unjust Land Revenue Hike: In January 1926, authorities proposed a 30% increase in land revenue, leading to discontent and increased peasant struggles.
  • Bardoli Protest: Congress leaders protested, forming the Bardoli Inquiry Committee to investigate. The committee deemed the revenue hike as unjustified.
    • In February 1926, Vallabhbhai Patel took charge, earning the title “Sardar” from Bardoli’s women.
    • Peasants decided to refuse revised assessment payments until an independent tribunal was appointed or the existing amount was accepted.
    • Patel established 13 worker’s camps (Chhavanis) in the taluka for movement organization.
    • Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was published to mobilize public opinion for the peasant struggles.
    • An intelligence wing was set up to ensure tenant compliance, and a social boycott targeted movement opposers. 
    • Emphasis was given to mobilizing women for active participation.
  • K.M. Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative Council in solidarity with the movement.
  • Gandhi’s Intervention: By August 1928, tension escalated, with potential railway strikes in Bombay. Gandhi arrived in Bardoli for emergency support. 
    • The government sought a graceful withdrawal, conditioning it on paying the increased rent first (not actually paid) and then formed a committee to look into the issue, which recommended a rise of 6.03%.
  • Peasant Mobilization: Peasant Awakening in the 1930s was influenced by the Great Depression and the Civil Disobedience Movement. 
    • No-rent, no-revenue movements emerged in various areas as a result of the peasant struggles.
    • After the decline of the active phase movement in 1932, new political entrants turned to organizing peasants as an outlet.

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• All India Kisan Congress/Sabha (1936–1937) [UPSC 2019]

• • Founded in Lucknow in April 1936 with Swami Sahajanand Saraswati as president and N.G. Ranga as general secretary. 
  • The Kisan manifesto was issued, and Indulal Yagnik started a periodical for the ongoing peasant struggles.
  • The AIKS and the Congress held their sessions in Faizpur in 1936. The AIKS agenda had a significant impact on the Congress manifesto for the 1937 provincial elections, particularly on the agrarian policy. 
  • Peasant Movements Under Congress Ministries (1937–1939):  It was a  High Watermark of the peasant movement and mobilization was through kisan conferences and village campaigns.

Peasant Mobilization Across Indian Provinces

• Kerala: Congress Socialist Party activists played a key role in mobilizing peasants in the Malabar region in regard to the peasant struggles.
  • Numerous “Karshak Sanghams” (peasants’ organizations) emerged.
  • In 1938, peasants campaigned for the amendment of the Malabar Tenancy Act, 1929.
• Andhra Pradesh: Zamindars faced declining prestige after electoral defeats by Congressmen.
  • Provincial ryot associations were active, and N.G. Ranga established the India Peasants’ Institute in 1933.
  • The summer schools of economics and politics were held and addressed by leaders like P.C. Joshi, Ajoy Ghosh and R.D. Bhardwaj.
• Bihar: Sahjanand Saraswati, Karyanand Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul Sankritayan, Panchanan Sharma, Jamun Karjiti, etc. were prominent figures.
• Provincial Kisan Conference in 1935 adopted the anti-zamindari slogan. The conference developed a rift with Congress over the ‘bakasht land’ issue. 
• The movement declined by August 1939 and impacted the ongoing peasant struggles.
• Punjab: The Kirti Kisan Party, the Congress, the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha, and the Akalis were responsible for organizing the previous peasant mobilization here. 
  • Punjab Kisan Committee: gave the movement a new direction in 1937.
  • The landlords who controlled the unionist ministry in western Punjab were the movement’s primary targets in the peasant struggles.
  • The first issues raised were the relocation of land revenue in Amritsar and Lahore, as well as the hike in water rates in the canal colonies of Montgomery and Multan, where private contractors were requesting feudal levies. Here, the peasants launched a strike and succeeded in obtaining concessions at last.
  • Key Centers of Activity: The key hubs of activity were Shekhupura, Jullundur, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, and Lyallpur.  
  • The Hindu peasants of south-eastern Punjab (modern-day Haryana) and the Muslim tenants-at-will of west Punjab remained mainly unaffected with the peasant struggles.

Post-War Phase

• Tebhaga Movement in Bengal [UPSC 2013]

  • Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha: Advocated the implementation of tebhaga on recommendations of the Flood Commission in 1946 , which aimed to allocate two-thirds of the harvest to sharecroppers (Bargadars/Adhyar) instead of the existing half-share.
  • The central slogan, “nij khamare dhan tolo,” emphasized sharecroppers taking their produce to their own threshing floor, challenging the traditional practice of delivering it to the landlords.
  • Rural Mobilization: Communist cadres, including urban student militias, ventured into rural areas to organize bargadars who worked on rented lands. 
    • The movement gained momentum as cadres worked towards empowering sharecroppers and challenging the established agrarian norms.
  • Epicenter of the Movement: The storm center of the movement was in north Bengal, predominantly among the Rajbanshis, a low-caste tribal group.
    • The participation of Muslims in large numbers showcased the movement’s diverse support base.
  • Dissipation Factors: But it dissipated because of the League ministry’s sop of the Bargardari Bill, an intensified repression, the popularization of the Hindu Mahasabha’s agitation for a separate Bengal and renewed riots in Calcutta that added to the peasant struggles.

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• Telangana Movement

• • Hyderabad, under Asajahi Nizams, faced religious-linguistic domination and extreme exploitation by landlords, leading to discontent among the predominantly Hindu-Telugu, Marathi, and Kannada-speaking population. 
  • The forced labour (Vethi) and illegal exactions by Deshmukh and Jagirdars fueled the discontent.
  • Communist-led Guerrillas: Established a strong base in Telangana villages, addressing issues such as wartime exactions, rationing abuse, excessive rent, and Vethi. 
  • The uprising ignited in July 1946 following the murder of a village militant in Jangaon taluq of Nalgonda, spreading rapidly to Warangal and Khammam. After the murder of a village militant, it spread across regions and intensified between August 1947 and September 1948.
  • Positive Outcomes: Agricultural wages increased, illegally seized lands were restored, and measures were taken to fix ceilings and redistribute lands. 
    • The movement led to tangible improvements in irrigation, cholera prevention, and the condition of women.
  • Contribution to Defeat: The movement contributed to the defeat of the Razaqars (Nizam’s stormtroopers) once Indian security forces took control of Hyderabad.
  • The establishment of Andhra Pradesh along linguistic lines was a significant outcome, aligning with the broader goals of the national movement in the region.

Summary of Various Peasant Movements

Conclusion

• The peasant struggles during colonial India, spanning from 1857 to 1947, was a significant chapter in India’s fight for independence and social justice. 
• Peasant struggles across the country rose against oppressive British policies, exploitative land revenue systems, and unjust taxation. 
• Their demands for land rights, fair treatment, and dignity laid the groundwork for agrarian reforms post-independence.