Orders of Sufism in India: Chishtiya, Qadriya, Suharwardiya, Naqshbandiya

Introduction

The Sufi orders, or silsilahs, played a significant role in shaping the spiritual landscape of India, blending mysticism with Islam. Among them, the Chishtiya, Qadriya, Suharwardiya, and Naqshbandiya orders stood out as major influencers. These orders introduced unique doctrines and practices that left a lasting impact on Indian society.

Overview of Sufi Orders in India

1. Chishtiya Order

• Founding of the Chishtiya Order in India: The Chishtiya Order was founded in India by Khwaja Moin-Uddin Chishti, who migrated to India from Central Asia at the behest of his peer (guide), Khwaja Usman. 
  • Settlement in Ajmer: He came with the army of Muhammad Ghori in 1192 and settled at Ajmer. 
  • Emphasis on Devotional Music: He maintained that devotional music was one way of coming close to God. 
• Adaptation to Local Customs and Traditions: They were the most influential Sufi group due to their successful adaptation to local customs and incorporation of Indian devotional traditions.
• Assimilation of Indian Devotional Practices: Practices such as bowing before the Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving the heads of initiates, and yogic exercises represented attempts to assimilate local traditions.
• Life in the Chishti Khanqah:
  • Role of the Khanqah in Social Life: The Khanqah was central to social life. It had rooms and a hall for living and praying, housing the Shaikh’s family, attendants, and disciples. 
  • Shelter During Times of Threat: During a potential Mongol threat, locals sought refuge in the khanqah.
  • Prominent Visitors: Visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani.
• Chishti Devotion
  • Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to Sufi saints’ tombs (Ziyarat) is a common practice for seeking spiritual grace (Barakat). It involves music, dance, and mystical chants by qawwals for divine ecstasy, blending indigenous devotional traditions.
    • The shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin, “Gharib Nawaz,” is most revered.
  • Geographical Importance of the Shrine: Situated on the Delhi-Gujarat trade route, it became popular with travellers.
  • Spiritual Practices: Sufis invoke God through ‘zikr’ (Divine Names) and ‘sama‘ (audition) or mystical music performance, a key aspect for Chishtis, bridging indigenous devotional traditions.

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• Languages and Communication:
  • Hindavi: Chishti Sufis in Delhi used Hindavi, the common language, for communication.
    • Sufi poets often used long poems, using human love to symbolise divine love.
    • Example:  Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s “Padmavat” narrates the story of Padmini and Ratansen to represent the soul’s journey to the divine.
  • Emergence of Sufi Poetry: Bijapur and Karnataka saw the creation of Sufi poetry, specifically in Dakhani, a form of Urdu associated with Chishti Sufis. 
    • The Sufis in this region drew inspiration from the bhakti tradition of Kannada Vachanas.
• Sufis and the State:
  • Chishti Tradition: The Chishti tradition maintained austerity but not political isolation and accepted grants and tax-free lands from rulers.
    • Example: the Shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin received early funding from Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa in the late 15th century. 
  • Popularity Among Kings and Nobility: Their piety, scholarship, and perceived miraculous abilities made them popular, attracting the support that kings desired. 
    • Example: Emperor Akbar frequently visited the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin (Ajmer), giving generously and building a mosque on the premises. Shah Jahan along with his daughter Jahanara, also visited the shrine.
  • Counterbalance to Sharia Law: Rulers of the Delhi Sultanate sought approval from Sufis, who had direct divine authority, to counterbalance the ulema’s push for shari‘a law.
    • Example: Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first Sultan to visit the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin.
  • Conflict Between Sultans and Sufis: Instances of conflict arose between Sultans and sufis, often stemming from specific rituals, such as Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (foot-kissing).
    • Example: Disagreement of Chishti Sufis over the policies pursued by Muhammad Tughlaq.
  • Titles: Sufi Shaikhs were occasionally honoured with titles. 
    • Example: The disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya addressed him as Sultan-ul-mashaikh.
  • Sufi Relations with the State: Sufis, like the Suhrawardi under the Delhi Sultans and the Naqshbandi under the Mughals, had connections with the state. 
    • Still, their methods of association differed from the Chishtis in their approach towards spiritualism and donations from the state.
    • Example: Bahauddin Zakariya received the title Shaikh-ul Islam and wealth from Iltutmish, adopting a more worldly approach.
• Some Sufis even accepted courtly positions.

2. Qadriya Order

• Founder:  Abdul Qadir Jilani (migrated into India from the Persio-Arab land); Shah Namatullah was another saint associated with it.
• Muhibullah Shah, Miyan Meer, and Dara Shikoh (the eldest son of Shahjahan) were the representative sufis of this order. 
• Comparison with Chishtis: The Qadriyas were not much different from the Chistis except that they owed allegience to their elders.
• Introduction of Qadriya Order in India: Qadriya order in India was introduced quite late in the last decades of the 14th century. 
  • The order became more popular in the Muslim world, including India, due to the induction of Ibnul Arabi into the fold.
• Unity of Existence Theory: Most of its followers, therefore, were the staunch supporters of the very controversial theory of the unity of existence, Wahdat-ul Wujood.
• Significance of the Qadriya Order: The Qadriya order remained less significant in India as compared to the other three major orders.  
• Association of Urdu Poets: Urdu poets Hasrat Mohani and Muhammad Iqbal were associated with this order.

Suharwardi Order 

• Founder: Sheikh Shahabuddin Suharwardi Maqtul. He introduced the doctrine of light (Nur) into Sufism
• Bahauddin Zakarya, a contemporary of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, was the most important Sufi of the Suharwardi order in India. He made it popular, particularly in Northern India
• Divergence from Chishti Philosophy: Unlike the Chishti saints, the Suharwardis considered the accumulation of wealth indispensable to offer better services to humanity. 
• Late Introduction: Introduced later than Chistiya, the order remained popular only for a short time.

Naqshbandi Order

• Promotion: Popularised by Khawja Naseer-ul-din Ubaidullah Ahrar. He lived in the Turkish Empire in the city of Samarqand. 
  • He encouraged the Timurid princes to invade the states like Tashqand and merge them into their kingdom.
• Introduction in India: The Naqsh Bandya order was introduced in India with the invasion of Babar. 
• Comparative Tolerance: Naqsh bandya order was less tolerant as compared to the Chishties, Qadries, and Suhawardies.
• Origins and Lineage: Naqshbandies traced their origin from the first caliph, Abu Bakr, unlike the other three orders.
• Puritanical Approach: Their puritanical approach made them austere and obstinately hard-liners. 
  • They recommended to the Mughal kings to impose jaziya (a kind of tax) on the Hindu subjects. 
  • The Mughal kings, however, never acted upon their advice.
• Shaikh Ahmad Sir Hindi: a noted NaqshBandi Saint, vehemently criticised Akbar for his policy of “Sulah-e-Kul” (compromise with all and his religion), “Deen-e-Ilahi” the religion of God, which Akbar founded for the fulfilment of his mission. 
• Early Inclination towards Wahdat-ul-Wujood: The early Nakshbandies were inclined towards Wahadata-ul-Wadjood, the unity of existence, the theory of Ibnul-Arabi.
• Later Development: Later on, Shaikh Ahmad Sir Hindi propounded another theory known as the unity of appearance, Wahadul-ul-Shahood. 
• Influence on Notable Saints: It produced many notable saints like Khwaja Khurd, Ahmad Sir Hindi, Khawaja Masoom, Shah Wali-ulah, and his son Shah Abdul Azeez. 
• Contribution of Shah Wali-ullah: Shah Wali-ullah was another outstanding sufi of this order. He also asserted that the Wahdut-ul-wujood and wahdut-ul-Shahood are simply two stages in the mystic journey.

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Bhakti and Sufi Interaction:

• Interaction between Nathpanthi Yogis and Chishti Sufis: They both interacted extensively. The Nathpanthi yogis, popular among various social strata, visited Chishti khanqahs for discussions on mysticism. 
• Translations of Yogic Texts: influenced Sufis’ adoption of meditation practises. 
• Embrace of Ethical Values: The Chishti Sufis embraced the ethical values of the yogis, fostering mutual understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims. 
  • This interaction led to cultural synthesis, including the composition of mystical poetry in regional languages and syncretic religious literature, especially in rural areas. 
  • Example: Use of Hindavi by Chistis.

Conclusion

The Sufi orders in India fostered spiritual growth, promoted cultural synthesis, and influenced the socio-political landscape. Through their teachings, practices, and interactions with various religious and social groups, they contributed to a rich tapestry of spiritual diversity in India, leaving behind a legacy of tolerance, compassion, and unity.