Tribal Revolts: Resistance Against Colonial Rule

Introduction

Tribal communities, with their distinct identities and traditional ways of life, frequently found themselves at odds with the colonial administration. Britsh made every possible way to exert control and exploit natural resources. Tribals rose against these injustices, Their revolts served as powerful expressions of indigenous resistance, challenging the hegemony of British authority and advocating for the preservation of tribal autonomy and rights. The tribal movements can be divided into mainland tribal revolts and frontier tribal revolts based on their point of occurrence.

Common Characteristics of Tribal Rebellions

• Targeting Agents of Colonial Oppression: Tribals did not view all “outsiders” as enemies: the moneylenders and traders were seen as agents of the colonial government and were the targets of the violence, leaving the poor people alone.
• Resentment Against Foreign Laws: the foreign government’s imposition of laws, which was perceived as an attempt to destroy the tribals’ traditional socio-economic framework.
• Origins of Tribal Movements: Numerous tribal movements originated from the erosion of tribal rights over land and forests due to British regulations.
• Emergence of Tribal Leaders: Leaders of such uprisings came to acquire messiah-like status who promised they could end suffering brought about by ‘outsiders’
• Limitations of Tribal Uprisings: The use of outdated arms and poor tactics meant that most tribal uprisings were meant to fail against the modern weaponry of the British.

Pahariyas Rebellion (1778) [Raj Mahal Hills]

• The Pahariyas, hill dwellers near Rajmahal hills, subsisted through forest produce and shifting cultivation, maintaining independence due to geographical isolation.
• Pre-British Era: Before British influence, they raided plains for subsistence, receiving tributes from zamindars and traders for peace. 
• Escalation of Conflict: Conflict escalated in the late 18th century with British-promoted settled agriculture, leading to intensified Pahariya raids.
• British Confrontation and Rebellion: In the 1770s, the British violently attacked Pahariyas, prompting a rebellion in 1778 led by Raja Jagganath. 
  • In the 1780s, British pacification included annual allowances to Paharia chiefs for ensuring proper conduct.

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Revolt of Tilka Manjhi [Santhal Pargana]

• Tilka Majhi (Jabra Paharia), led a revolt in the Pargana against British policies, particularly opposing the divide-and-rule strategy. 
• Guerrilla Operations: Operating around Sultanganj, Tilka targeted East India Company boats along the Ganga, looting the British treasury and sharing the spoils with the poor. 
  • He organized guerrilla warfare, also involving Santhal women. 
  • In 1778: Tilka, along with Paharia Sardars, captured the Ramgarh Camp.
  • In 1784: he led an attack on Bhagalpur, allegedly shooting the British magistrate Augustus Cleveland. 
•  Adivasi Resistance Icon: The British retaliated, capturing and hanging Tilka in 1785. Tilka is revered as the first Adivasi leader to take up arms against the British.

Jungle Mahal Revolt or Chuar Uprisings (1776)  [Chota Nagpur]

• Roots of the Initial Rebellion: The initial rebellion erupted in response to a hike in revenue imposed on jungle zamindars, aggravated by British instructions to demolish mud forts in 1767. 
• Affected Areas: Between Chota Nagpur and the plains of Bengal (Parganas in Birbhum, Bankura, and Midnapore).
• Rebellion of Jagannath Singh: In 1768, Ghatsila’s zamindar, Jagannath Singh, and thousands of Chuar followers rebelled, leading to the capitulation of the Company government. 
  • In 1771, Chuar sardars Shyam Ganjan, Subla Singh, and Dubraj rose in rebellion, but it was subsequently suppressed.
• Uprising Under Durjan Singh: The most significant Chuar uprising occurred in 1798 under Durjan Singh, prompted by discontent with East India Company policies, including the Permanent Settlement and changes in police regulations. 
  • The rebellion involved Paiks, ordinary Chuars, and jungle zamindars. 
  • The revolt, centred around Raipur, was violently suppressed in 1799. 
  • Notable leaders included Madhab Singh, Raja Mohan Singh, and Lachman Singh. 

Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) [Bihar]

• Santhals moved into the Rajmahal area in the late 1770s and early 1780s to live a settled life.
• Santhal and Paharia feud (It has been called a battle between the hoe and the plough: 
  • The Hoe: symbolising the Paharias who used the tool in shifting cultivation and 
  • The Plough: Standing for the Santhals who used it for settled agriculture was settled by the formation of Daman-i-Koh (a Persian term meaning outside edges of the hills). 
  • A portion of land at the foothills was declared to be that of the Santhals.
• Permanent Settlement Act of 1793: The taxes levied by the Company government under this act on their land were heavy and money had to be borrowed to pay off debts. 
  • But the diku (outsiders) moneylenders charged very high rates of interest and, when debts remain unpaid, took possession of the land. 
  • Slowly, zamindars were taking over the Damin tracts. 
• Santhal ‘Hul’ Uprising: The rebellion soon turned into a movement against the British colonial state. The Santhals called the rebellion ‘hul’, meaning a liberation movement.
  • Led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu to end Company Rule and carve out an autonomous territory.
  • Started against Zamindars and moneylenders but later acquired an anti-British character.
  • The use of Guerrilla Warfare tactics was particularly successful, and eventually, it made the British become conciliatory.
• Creation of Santhal Parganas: Post the revolt, the Santhal Pargana was created out of the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum with special laws for tribals. [UPSC 2018]

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Khond Uprisings (1837-56)

• It was led by Chakra Bisnoi in a hilly region spanning from Orissa to Andhra Pradesh. 
• It was joined by the Ghumsar, Kalahandi, and other tribals to oppose the suppression of human sacrifice, new taxes, and the entry of zamindars into their areas.

Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-15) [Chotanagpur Region]

• Jatra Oraon of Ranchi declared himself divinely ordained in April 1914 to become a king. This proclamation led to the formation of the Tana Bhagat movement in Jharkhand.
• Causes of the Movement: The movement emerged as a response to agrarian discontent, opposing forced labour (begar) and unjust rent increases imposed by colonial authorities, zamindars, and intermediary tenure-holders. 
  • They were against both moneylenders and missionaries.
  • Tana Bhagat Movement was primarily religious and nonviolent.
• Early Adoption of Satyagraha: The movement engaged in satyagraha even before Mahatma Gandhi’s satyagraha movement.
  • In 1921, during the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Tana Bhagats aligned themselves with the Congress, participating in the broader struggle for independence.

Birsa Munda Revolt (1890s-1901) [Singhbhum & Ranchi]

• Also known as ‘The Ulgulan’ (Great Tumult) [UPSC 2020]
• Aim: was to establish an independent Munda Raj with religious and political independence. 
• Origins of the Movement: The British introduction of the zamindari system led to the imposition of rent on tribal land, causing eviction for non-payment and increased dependence on usurious moneylenders. 
  • So, the movement started with anger against moneylenders and outsiders (‘dikus’), including Christian Missionaries.
• Government Reforms: Later, the Government took measures like the abolishment of compulsory begging, and passage of the Tenancy Act of 1903, which recognised Mundas’ Khuntkatti system. The Chotanagpur Tenancy Act was passed in 1908.

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Tribal Movements of the North East

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Conclusion

• Tribal revolts against British colonial rule in India were significant expressions of indigenous resistance to oppressive policies and exploitation. 
• These revolts were rooted in grievances such as land dispossession, economic exploitation, and cultural marginalization imposed by British authorities and their allies.
• These revolts not only symbolized resistance against colonial oppression but also paved the way for reforms and recognition of tribal rights through government measures.