1857 Revolt in India: Causes, Spread, Suppression & Consequences

The Beginning of 1857 Revolt

• The 19th Native Infantry at Berhampore (West Bengal) refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle and broke out in mutiny in February 1857 Revolt, It was disbanded in March 1857. 
• Mangal Pandey of 34th Native Infantry fired at the sergeant major of his unit at Barrackpore. He was overpowered and executed. His regiment was disbanded. 
• 3rd Native Cavalry men refused to accept greased cartridges and started a revolt. Thus, The revolt began at Meerut, 58 km from Delhi, on May 10, 1857.

Causes of the 1857 Revolt

• Sepoy Discontent: Immediate and precipitating cause of the  1857 Revolt.
  • The British interfered in socio-religious affairs by putting restrictions on sepoys wearing caste & sectarian marks. 
  • Racism and the superiority complex of Britishers led to fissures, as seen in the lack of promotions and privileges to native soldiers and the lack of foreign service allowance in areas like Sindh, and Punjab. 
• General Service Enlistment Act (1856 ): It decreed that all future recruits to the Bengal Army would have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere. 
  • This meant that recruits had to cross the sea, and crossing the sea in Hindu belief, meant loss of caste.
• Economic: The Colonial policies destroyed the traditional economic fabric of India.
  • Peasants: They were heavily taxed. They had to take loans from moneylenders at usurious rates.  
    • They later faced evictions due to non-payment of debt, leading to landlessness. 
  • Artisans: lost patronage because native rulers and nobles came under economic duress.
  • Zamindars: Lost their lands due to the frequent use of a quo warranto by the administration.
  • Suppression of Handicrafts: British Industrial policy discouraged Indian handicrafts (high tariff duties) as well as the development of modern industries (no permits were given). 
    • The British imposed high tariff duties on Indian-made goods, and very low tariffs were placed on imported items.
• Political: British Expansionary Policies like “Subsidiary Alliance”, “Doctrine of Lapse”, and “Effective Control” created dependence of native rulers on the British.
• Awadh Annexation (1856): Popular Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was displaced.
• Administrative: Corruption was rampant, especially at lower levels in courts, police and land records.
  • The character of the British rule imparted a foreign and alien look in the eyes of Indians, giving a feeling of absentee sovereignty. 
• Socio-Religious: Christian missionaries were seen with suspicion by the locals. 
  • Socio-religious reforms like Sati Abolition and Widow remarriage were seen as unnecessary interference in religious matters by the  British. 
  • Religious Sensibilities: Rumours of mixing of bone dust in atta (flour), grease of cartridges being made of beef (angered Hindus) and pig fat (angered Muslims) enraged the religio-cultural sensibilities of the Sepoys.  
• External Influences: The British losses abroad in the First Afghan War (1838-42), Punjab Wars (1845-49) and Crimean Wars (1854-56)  broke the myth of British invincibility. 

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The Spread of  the 1857 Revolt

Mass Revolt

• Zamindars became the leaders of the resistance.
• Civilian Participation increased with peasantry, artisans, and labourers joining in against moneylenders and British officials.
• Complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims imparted momentum to the rebellion.
• Azamgarh Proclamation: Enlisted demands of rebels as well as condemned British rule.
  • Nationalist images were used to incite passions against Company rule.
  • Later, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan wrote about the valour of Rani Laxmibai

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Suppression of 1857 Revolt 

• The British recaptured Delhi in September 1857 Revolt and took Bahadur Shah as a prisoner, and exiled him to Rangoon, killing royal princes. The House of Mughals was completely exhausted.  
• Able military commanders recaptured all key centres, such as Sir Colin Campbell (Kanpur), Sir Hugh Rose (Jhansi) and Colonel Neill (Benaras).
• By 1859, Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal while Tantia Tope was captured and killed.
• Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of Nana Saheb) and Maulvi Ahmadullah were all dead, while the Begum of Awadh was compelled to hide in Nepal. 
• North India was put under martial rule, and even ordinary Britishers got the power to punish Indians suspected of rebellion.

Analysis of the 1857 Revolt

• Causes of Failure of Revolt 
• Limited territorial spread: The eastern, southern, and western parts of India remained more or less unaffected.
• Certain groups did not participate
• Loyalty of Indian Rulers to the British: Most Indian rulers remained loyal to the British such as Scindia of Gwalior, and Holkar of Indore.
• Big zamindars and Moneylenders Stayed Away: as they felt their interests were best served under the British.  
• The feudal, conservative nature of the revolt alienated the educated middle class.
• Poor Quality of Weapons: used did not stand a chance against British weaponry
• Uncoordinated nature of attacks against exceptional warfare abilities of military commanders like James Outram and Henry Havelock. 
• No Unified Ideology: to bind the mutineers
• Lack of ALternative: A comprehensive socio-political alternative.

Consequences of the 1857 Revolt

• Enactment of Act of Better Government of India, 1858 
• Abolition of company rule.
• Queen Victoria was declared as sovereign of British India.
• Appointment of Secretary of State to take direct administrative control away from East India Company.
• Appointment of Viceroy: Made Lord Canning (Governor General of India) take the title of ‘Viceroy’.
• Queen’s Proclamation of 1858.
  • That the era of annexation and expansion had ended and declared that Indian states had to recognise the paramountcy of the British Crown. 
  • People of India promised freedom of religion, equality of all and non-interference by the British in personal affairs.
• Re-organisation of the Army: done under the “Divide and Rule” philosophy of the British 
  • Caste/Community/Region became the basis of new army units 
  • Martial Races: This doctrine rewarded loyalty during the rebellion and increased recruitment from Punjab, Nepal and the North-western frontier region
• Army Amalgamation Scheme, 1861: Moved Company’s European troops to services of the crown.

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• Non-Interference: The British stopped its socio-cultural reformist zeal, deemed as the “White Man’s Burden”, and shifted to non-interference in matters of Indian society.
• Economic exploitation of India gained pace.

Significance of the 1857 Revolt

• Highlighted shortcomings in Company rule and expressed genuine grievances of Indians.
• Established local traditions of resistance to British rule, which helped later in the Freedom Struggle
• Helped motivate countless freedom fighters in the future

Nature of the 1857 Revolt

• VD Savarkar called the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 Revolt as “First War of Indian Independence”.
• Dr R.C. Majumdar considers it as neither the first nor national nor a war of independence.
• Nehru saw it as a feudal uprising.
• Marxists saw it as a struggle of the soldier-peasant combined against foreign and feudal bondage.

Conclusion

• While the revolt did not achieve its immediate goal of overthrowing British rule, it sowed the seeds for future anti-colonial movements and inspired generations of freedom fighters. 
• The events of 1857 Revolt also prompted the British government to reassess its colonial policies and led to significant reforms in administration, military, and governance in India. 
• Although the revolt was suppressed by the British, the revolt served as a powerful assertion of Indian nationalism, unity, and resistance against foreign domination.