Socio-Religious Reform Movements: Personalities and Organizations

Introduction

The 19th century witnessed significant social and cultural upheaval due to alien British rule, opposition to Western culture, the depressing position of women, caste-based inequalities, the rise of the intellectual middle class and the proliferation of values of equality, justice etc. This necessitated a slew of socio-religious reforms, which is often termed as Indian Renaissance. 

Social and Ideological Foundations of Reform Movements in Colonial India

• Social Base: Service class, English-educated Bengali youth etc.
• Ideological Base: Based on the rationalism of Rammohan Roy and Akshay Kumar Dutta, Secularism,  religious Universalism, and Humanism.
• Two Streams of Social Movements: Reformist and Revivalist.
• • Reformists: Relied on reason and rationalism in accepting or rejecting a social custom or religious tradition. 
    • Examples: Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and Aligarh Movement.
  • Revivalists: Appealed more to tradition than reason. 
    • Examples: Arya Samaj Movement, Wahabi Movement, and Deoband Movement.
• Evolution of Social Reform Movements: The social reform movements were linked to the religious reforms primarily because nearly all social ills like untouchability and gender-based inequity derived legitimacy from religion in one way or the other. 
  • In later years, though, the social reform movement gradually dissociated itself from religion and adopted a secular approach.

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REFORMS TO COUNTER CASTE DISCRIMINATION

RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY (1772-1833)

• He was often called the father of the Indian Renaissance.
• He authored “Gift to Monotheists” (1809) and translated Vedas to advocate for monotheism within Hinduism. 
• Atmiya Sabha: set up in 1814 (society of friends), aimed to propagate monotheistic ideals of Vedanta.
• In his Precepts of Jesus (1820), he tried to separate the moral and philosophical message of the New Testament.
• Brahmo Sabha: founded in 1828 and later renamed Brahmo Samaj, emphasized the worship of the eternal being via prayers, meditation, and Upanishad readings, explicitly excluding any form of imagery to oppose idolatry and rituals. [UPSC 2012]
  • The Samaj was committed to “the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe”. 
  • It denounced polytheism, idolatry, faith in avatars, paramount stature of any one scripture and caste system.
• Anti-sati Campaign: began in 1818, leading to the government regulation in 1829, declaring sati a crime. 
• Advocacy for Women’s Rights: Roy championed women’s rights, opposing polygamy and advocated for inheritance and property rights for women.
• Hindu College: He supported David Hare’s efforts to establish the Hindu College in 1817 and established Vedanta College in 1825, which offered courses in Indian and Western sciences.

LATER BRAHMO SAMAJ

• Debendranath Tagore joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1842. 
• Tattvabodhini Sabha (founded in 1839): headed by Debendranath Tagore , which, along with its organ Tattvabodhini Patrika in Bengali, was devoted to the systematic study of India’s past with a rational outlook. 
  • The Brahmo Sabha and Tatvabodhini Sabha came to be informally associated, once Tagore joined.
• Tagore’s Dual Approach: Tagore worked on two fronts: within Hinduism, it was a reformist movement; 
  • Outside, it opposed the Christian missionaries for their criticism of Hinduism.
• Adi Brahmo Samaj: After the split with Keshab Chandra Sen, Debendranath Tagore’s Samaj came to be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.
•  Brahmo Samaj of India: Keshab Chandra Sen expanded Brahmo Samaj’s reach beyond Bengal and later formed  Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866.

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• Split in Brahmo Samaj of India: In 1878, Keshab’s act of getting his 13-year-old daughter married to the minor Hindu Maharaja of Cooch-Behar with all the orthodox Hindu rituals caused another split in Keshab’s Brahmo Samaj of India.
• Sadharan Brahmo Samaj: Fouhnded by Ananda Mohan Bose, Shibchandra Deb, and Umesh Chandra Datta in opposition to the ideas of Keshab Chandra Sen.
• In Punjab, the Dayal Singh Trust sought to implant Brahmo ideas by the opening of Dayal Singh College at Lahore in 1910.

PRARTHANA SAMAJ (1867)

• Keshab Chandra Sen helped Atmaram Pandurang in the foundation of Prarthana Samaj in Bombay.
• Paramahansa Sabha: A precursor of the Prarthana Samaj was the Paramahansa Sabha, which spread liberal ideas and encouraged the breakdown of caste and communal barriers.
• Objectives: It primarily focused on social reforms rather than religious doctrines with a four-point social agenda: 
  • Disapproval of the caste system, 
  • Women’s education, 
  • Widow remarriage, 
  • Raising the age of marriage for both males and females. 
• Bhakti Cult: The Prarthana Sabha was very attached to the bhakti cult of Maharashtra.
• Mahadeo Govind Ranade: joined Prarthana Samaj in 1870, significantly contributing to its popularity and the expansion of its work. 
  • Other leaders of the samaj were R.G. Bhandarkar and N.G. Chandavarkar.
• Widow Remarriage Movement: Dhondo Keshav Karve and Vishnu Shastri joined Mahadeo Govind Ranade in championing social reform. 
  • They founded the Widow Remarriage Movement and the Widows’ Home Association. 

YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT (LATE 1820s – EARLY 1830s)

• Emergence of Radical Intellectual Movement: It was a radical intellectual movement which emerged among the youth in Bengal led by Henry Vivian Derozio
  • Henry Vivian Derozio, an Anglo-Indian and a teacher at Hindu College from 1826 to 1831. He was removed from the Hindu College in 1831 because of his radicalism.
• Influence of French Revolution: He was influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution for liberty, equality, and freedom. 
  • The Derozians continued Rammohan Roy’s tradition of public education on social, economic, and political issues.
• Their Demands: 
  • Advocacy for Indian representation in higher services ; 
  • Support for ryots’ protection and fair treatment of Indian labour abroad ; 
  • Calls for the revision of the Company’s charter, freedom of the press, and trial by jury.
• Limitations of the Derozians: However, the Deorizians lacked any real link with the masses, and their radicalism was bookish in character. 
  • Surendranath Banerjea acknowledged the Derozians as “the pioneers of the modern civilization of Bengal”.

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Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1850)

• Sanskrit College Reforms: He assumed the role of principal at Sanskrit College in 1850 and aimed to dismantle the priestly monopoly over scriptural knowledge by opening the college to non-Brahmins.  
• Social Reforms: He initiated a movement supporting widow remarriage, resulting in the legalisation of this practice. 
  • He opposed child marriage and polygamy while championing women’s education by seamlessly integrating Indian and Western thought into his ideas.
• He devised a new Bengali primer and evolved a new prose style.
• Bethune School: began as a Hindu Female School in 1849 and was renamed Bethune School in 1856. 
  • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was appointed as the secretary of Bethune School/College established in 1849. [UPSC 2021]

Balshastri Jambhekar (1832-1840)

• He challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy and sought to reform Hinduism.
• Darpan Newspaper: He started the newspaper Darpan in 1832 and later Digdarshan in 1840, to promote social reforms such as widow remarriage and scientific approach to life. 
  • He is known as the father of Marathi journalism.
• Jambhekar founded the Bombay Native General Library and started the Native Improvement Society, which was an offshoot of the Students Literary and Scientific Library.
  • He was the first professor of Hindi at Elphinstone College, besides being a director of the Colaba Observatory.

Paramahansa Mandali (1849)

• Origins: It was founded by Dadoba Pandurang and Mehtaji Durgaram in Maharashtra and began as a secret society focused on reforming Hindu religion and society. The ideology was closely linked to that of the Manav Dharma Sabha.
• Ideology: Embracing ideologies of worshipping one god, love, moral conduct, freedom of thought, and rationality. 
  • It advocated breaking caste rules, promoted widow remarriage, and supported women’s education.
• Its branches existed in Poona, Satara, and other towns of Maharashtra.

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JYOTIRAO AND SAVITRIBAI PHULE

•  Satyashodhak Samaj: Jyotirao Phule, born in Satara (Maharashtra), founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seeker’s Society) in 1873, with the leadership of the samaj coming from the backward classes.
• Objective: The main aims of the movement were
  • Social service and Spread of education among women and lower caste people. [ UPSC 2016 ]
• Social Activism of Jyotirao Phule: He introduced the term ‘Dalit’ to describe the oppressed.
  • Advocated for a society free of exploitation;  
  • Satyashodhak marriage ceremonies challenged Brahminical practices.
  • Phule believed in the Aryan invasion theory. 
• Literary Works: Phule’s works, Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri became sources of inspiration for the common masses.
• Symbolism of Rajah Bali: Phule used the symbol of Rajah Bali as opposed to the Brahmins’ symbol of Rama.
• Mahatmta Title: Received the title of Mahatma in 1888 from social reformer Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar.
• Native Female School: established by him along with his wife in Pune in 1863 and the Society for Promoting the Education of Mahars, Mangs, and others.

Gopal Baba Walangkar (1840–1900)

• Gopal Krishna: Also known as Gopal Krishna, he played a crucial role in uplifting Dalits from socio-economic oppression, earning recognition as the pioneer of the Dalit movement by Ambedkar.
• Born in a Mahar family near Mahad, Maharashtra, he served in the army until his retirement in 1886, deeply influenced by Jyotiba Phule. 
• Vital Vidhvansak: In 1888, Walangkar began publishing the monthly journal Vital Vidhvansak (Destroyer of Brahmanical or Ceremonial Pollution). [UPSC 2020]
•  In 1889, he followed with a pamphlet, Vital Viduvansan (Annihilation of Ceremonial Pollution).
• Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali: He founded the Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali, advocating against the government’s discontinuation of Mahar recruitment in the army. 
• He wrote Hindu Dharma Darpan, which was published in 1894. He also wrote in the Marathi language for journals such as Sudharak and Deenbandhu to arouse awareness of the caste issue. 

Kisan Faguji Bansod (1879–1946)

• He was born in a Mahar family in Nagpur, and aimed to educate Dalit boys and girls. 
• He established the Chokhamela girls’ school in Nagpur and published journals like Nirashrit Hind Nagar, Vital Vidhwansak, and Majur Patrika. 
• He served as a secretary in the All India Depressed Classes Conference in 1920.
• He was influenced by the Bhakti cult and the work of the Brahmo Samaj and the Prarthana Samaj. 
• Though he also subscribed to the theory of the enslavement of the Dalits because of the Aryan invasion, he advocated reforms within  Hinduism for the upliftment of the Dalits

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Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873–1944)

• He was born in a Marathi family in Karnataka. He was influenced in his spiritual journey by the works of Tukaram, Eknath, and Ramdas. 
• He was influenced by Hari Narayan Apte, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, and G.B. Kotkar, among other thinkers.
• Fight Against Untouchability: He joined the Prarthana Samaj and worked towards the removal of untouchability in India.
• Night School: He established a night school in Pune in 1905 for the children of untouchables and the Depressed Classes Mission in Bombay in 1906, focusing on education and solving the problems faced by the untouchables.
• Testimony to the Southborough Franchise Committee: Shinde gave evidence before the Southborough Franchise committee in 1919 and expressed the need for giving special representation to the untouchable class.
• Participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement: He took part in the CDM and was imprisoned in the Yerawda Central Jail. 
• Shinde was the author of Bharatiya Asprushyatecha Prashna.

Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823–92)

• Also known as “Lokhitwadi”, he was a rationalist from Maharashtra and advocated for the reorganization of Indian society based on rational principles and modern, secular values. 
• He held the post of a judge under the British Raj but wrote for a weekly Prabhakar under the pen name of Lokahitawadi on social reform issues.
• Advocacy Against Caste System: He wrote against the caste system, challenging Hindu orthodoxy, and emphasized social and religious equality.
• Initiatives in Journalism: He started a weekly, Hitechhu, and also played a leading role in founding the periodicals, Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash, and Lokahitawadi.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856–95)

• Educational Contributions: As an educationist, his contributions include co-founding the New English School, the Deccan Education Society, and Fergusson College. 
• He served as the principal of Fergusson College and was the first editor of Kesari (Lokmanya Tilak’s journal).
• He started the periodical Sudharak, addressing issues of untouchability and the caste system.

SERVANTS OF INDIA SOCIETY (1866–1915)

• Gopal Krishna Gokhale established it in 1905 with M.G. Ranade’s support. 
• Objectives: It aimed to train national missionaries, promote the true interests of the Indian people via constitutional means, and prepare selfless workers devoted to the country’s cause. 
• In 1911, Hitavada began publication to project the society’s views. 
• After his death in 1915, Srinivasa Shastri took over as president.

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Social Service League

• Founder: Narayan Malhar Joshi (a follower of Gokhale) founded it in Bombay to improve the living and working conditions of the masses. 
• Initiatives: It organized schools, libraries, reading rooms, day nurseries, and cooperative societies. 
• Diverse Activities: Their activities extended to police court agents’ work, legal aid, excursions for slum dwellers, gymnasia, theatrical performances, sanitary work, medical relief, and the establishment of boys’ clubs.
• He also played a role in founding the All India Trade Union Congress in 1920.

Ramkrishna Movement

• Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: Originally named Gadadhar Chattopadhyay, he Served as a priest at the Kali temple in Dakshineshwar.
• Objectives of Ramakrishna’s Teachings: To establish a band of monks dedicated to a life of renunciation and practical spirituality, who would be sent out to spread the message of Vedanta.
• Ramakrishna Math and Mission
  • Ramakrishna Math was founded by Paramahamsa with monastic disciples.
  • Ramakrishna Mission was established by Swami Vivekananda in 1897.
  • Both have headquarters at Belur near Calcutta.
  • Operate as twin organizations, legally and financially separate.
• Paramahamsa’s Approach to Salvation
  • Advocated for traditional methods: renunciation, meditation, bhakti. Recognized the oneness of all religions. Promoted multiple paths to God: “As many faiths, so many paths.”
• Motto: He used to say, “Service of man is the service of God.”

Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Dutta) (1862–1902)

• Promoted Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s teachings, adapting them to modern Indian society.
• Philosophical Stance: Vivekananda was influenced by Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s spiritual experiences, Upanishads, Gita, Buddha, and Jesus. 
  • He subscribed to Vedanta, advocating it as a rational and superior approach. 
  • He emerged as a preacher of neo-Hinduism.
• Objective: His mission was to bridge the gap between Paramartha (service) and Vyavahara (behaviour) and between spirituality and daily life.
• Envisioned the union of Hinduism and Islam as India’s hope.
• Stressed the importance of social action and practical knowledge.
• Advocates service to all beings as worship of Siva.
• Embraces technology and science for the service of mankind.

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Dayananda Saraswati Or Mulshanker (1824–83)

• He was born in the old Morvi state in Gujarat in a Brahmin family. He wandered as an ascetic for 15 years (1845–60) in search of truth.
• Arya Samaj: He founded Arya Samaj in 1875  in Bombay in response to Western influences. Later the headquarters was shifted to Lahore. 
• Swami Dayananda Saraswati’s Vision: His vision was outlined in his work Satyarth Prakash which aimed for a classless and casteless society, a united India, and freedom from foreign rule by advocating a return to Vedic principles. 
  • He gave the slogan “Back to the Vedas”.
• Teachings and Critiques by Swami Dayananda Saraswati: Dayananda had received education on Vedanta from Swami Virajananda in Mathura.
  • He stressed the significance of individual interpretation of the scriptures and said that every person has the right to access to God. 
  • He criticised Puranas and ignorant priests. 
  • He attacked the idea of Niyati (destiny), but believed in Karma, reincarnation and Chaturvarna, based on merit or occupation.
• Swami Dayananda Saraswati’s Philosophy: He advocated that God, soul, and matter (Prakriti) were distinct and eternal entities, and every individual had to work out his own salvation.

• Reform in Marriage Age: The Arya Samaj fixed the minimum marriage age at 25 years for boys and 16 years for girls.
• He also met other reformers of the time like Keshab Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ranade, Deshmukh, etc.
• Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) College: It was established in 1886 at Lahore. 
  • It experienced a split in 1893 into the College Party and Mahatma Party over the curriculum of D.A.V College.
• College Party: included Lala Hansraj, Lala Lal  Chand and Lala Lajpat Rai; and favoured English education and a non-vegetarian diet; 
  • The College Party retained control over the D.A.V. School and College
• Mahatma Party: It was led by Guru Datta Vidyarthi and Lala Munshi Ram favored indigenous education and vegetarianism. 
  • Swami Shraddhanand established  Gurukul Kangri emphasizing indigenous education of Vedas and Sanskrit and social reform.
• Shuddhi Movement: Initiated to reconvert converts of Christianity and Islam to Hinduism.

Seva Sadan (1908)

• Established by Behramji M. Malabari along with Diwan Dayaram Gidumal.
• Malabari significantly influenced the enactment of the Age of Consent Act. 
• Focus On: It centred on delivering education, medical care, and welfare services to women discarded and exploited across all castes.
• Newspaper: Behramji Malabari acquired and edited the Indian Spectator. 

Dev Samaj (1887)

• Founded in Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri
• Key Tenets of Narayana Guru’s Teachings: It emphasized eternal soul concepts, guru supremacy, and encouraged righteous actions. It propagated ideal social behaviour, including abstaining from bribery, avoiding intoxicants, and non-vegetarian food, and promoting non-violence. 
• Deva Shastra: The teachings were compiled in the book Deva Shastra.
• He opposed child marriage.

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Dharma Sabha (1830)

• Radhakant Deb founded it as an orthodox society, committed to preserving the socio-religious status quo, even opposing the abolition of sati. 
• It endorsed the promotion of Western education.

Bharat Dharma Mahamandal (1902)

• Objectives: Led by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, its objectives included managing Hindu religious institutions and promoting Hindu education.
• It emerged as an all-India organization defending orthodox Hinduism against Arya Samajists, Theosophists, and the Ramakrishna Mission.
• Other organisations created to defend orthodox Hinduism were the Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895), the Dharma Maha Parishad in South India, and Dharma Mahamandali in Bengal. 
• These organizations combined in 1902 to form the single organization of Bharat Dharma Mahamandala, with headquarters at Varanasi.                  

Radha Swami Movement (1861)

• Initiated by Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb) in 1861, it embraced spiritual ideals, including belief in one supreme being, guru supremacy, Satsang (the company of pious people), and adherence to a simple social life. 
• According to them, all religions are true. Though, they had no belief in temples, shrines, and sacred places.

INDIAN SOCIAL CONFERENCE (1887)

• Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao, convened annually from its inaugural session in Madras, coinciding with the Indian National Congress. 
• Social Reform Wing: Serving as the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress, it highlighted critical social issues.
• Pledge Movement: To rally people against child marriage.  
• Opposition to Polygamy and Kulinism: The conference advocated inter-caste marriages and opposed polygamy and kulinism. (old men took very young girls as wives)             

PARSI REFORM MOVEMENTS (1851)

• Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association): was founded in 1851 by a group of English-educated Parsis.
  • Objective: Rregeneration of the social conditions of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity”
• Rast Goftar: The message of reform was spread by the newspaper Rast Goftar (Literally Truth-Teller).
• Led by figures like Naoroji Furdonji and Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama, and S.S. Bengalee. 

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Sikh Reform Movements

• Singh Sabha Movement: Founded in 1873, aimed to provide modern education to Sikhs (for this purpose, a network of Khalsa schools was established by the Sabha throughout Punjab) and counter proselytizing activities of Christian and Brahmo Samaj list activities, Arya Samajists, and Muslim maulvis. 
• Akali Movement: Also known as the Gurudwara Reform Movement.
  • It was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement. 
  • It aimed at liberating the Sikh gurudwaras from the control of corrupt Udasi mahants.
• Regional and Non-Communal: The Akali Movement was a regional movement but not a communal one, and they launched a non-violent non-cooperation movement in 1921.
• Role of the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC): The government enacted the  Gurdwaras Act of 1922 (amended in 1925), which gave control to the Sikh masses by making appointments through the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).

Theosophical Movement

• Foundation: Established in 1875 in New York City by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S. Olcott as a movement inspired by Indian thought and culture. 
  • In 1882, the society relocated its headquarters to Adyar, near Madras.
• Embracing Hindu Philosophies: It embraced Hindu concepts such as reincarnation and karma, drawing inspiration from the Upanishads, yoga, and Vedanta. 
  • It opposed child marriage and advocated the abolition of caste discrimination, uplift of and improvement in the condition of widows.
  • It also aimed at improving the condition of widows, aligning itself with the ideals of the Hindu renaissance and, at one point, with the Arya Samaj.
• Annie Besant‘s Presidency: In 1907, Annie Besant became the President (she came to India in 1893). 
  • Her initiatives include establishing the Central Hindu College in Benaras in 1898. 
  • The college became the nucleus for the formation of Benaras Hindu University in 1916.

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Conclusion

• Socio-religious reform movements in India have played a pivotal role in challenging orthodoxies, advocating for social equality, and promoting educational reform that 
• These movements, led by visionary leaders and inspired by diverse philosophies, have left a lasting impact on Indian society, contributing to its evolution towards greater inclusivity, enlightenment, and progress.