Akbar’s Administrative System: Governance and Reforms of the Mughal Empire

During Akbar’s reign, the Mughal Empire‘s administrative system was highly organized and efficient. Central and provincial administrations were well-structured, ensuring effective governance across the vast empire. Land revenue systems and the Mansabdari system played crucial roles in maintaining stability and prosperity.

An Overview of Akbar’s Administrative System and Policies

1. Central Administration

• Wazir or Diwan-i-ala: Headed the revenue department but did not hold a high mansab. 
  • He was responsible for all income and expenditure and held control over khalisa, jagir, and inam lands.
• Khalisa: land owned by the emperor directly
• Jagir: given to Mansabdrs as salary
• Inam: assigned to learned and religious men
• Inam Grants: were granted irrespective of religious beliefs, encouraging cultivation. 
  • It attracted talent from foreign lands due to the high salaries of Mughal nobles.
• Mir Bakshi: Head of military administration, overseeing armed contingents and war equipment. He personally supervised the branding of the horses (Dagh) and checked the muster-roll (Chehra) of the soldiers. 
  • All orders of appointments of mansabdars and their salary papers were endorsed and passed by him. 
  • He was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies.
• Intelligence Officers (Barids): and news reporters (waqia-navis) were posted in all parts of the empire.
• Ahadis: a body of gentleman troopers. They were the emperor’s own household troops who were directly recruited by the Mughal emperor himself, mainly from the emperor’s own blood relatives and tribesmen.

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• Mir Saman: In charge of the imperial household, managing supplies and provisions. 
  • He supervised the production of various items in Karkhanas (factories) and was responsible for maintaining court etiquette and controlling the royal bodyguards.
• Sadr-us-Sudur: He was the head of the ecclesiastical department. His chief duty was to protect the laws of the shari’at. 
  • He was also connected with the distribution of charities – cash (Wazifa) and land grants (Suyurghal, In’am, Madad-i-ma’ash). 

2. Provincial Administration

• Division of Empire: Divided empire into 12 provinces (suba), endowing each with a Diwan, Bakshi, Sadr, and Qazi who replicated the functions of their central counterparts. Provinces were further subdivided into sarkars and Parganas. [UPSC 2021].
• Suba (Province): Headed by a Subedar responsible for law and order.
  • Diwan: managed revenue, supervised collections, and increased cultivation.
  • Taccavi (loans): to peasants were facilitated through the revenue department.
  • Bakshi: oversaw horses and soldiers.
  • Sadar: represented central authority, overseeing religious and judicial matters.
• Sarkar (District): Headed by Faujdar who took care of rebellions and law and order problems, protecting residents and assisting in revenue collection. 
• Amalguzar/Amil: was the most important revenue collector. 
  • A good amil was supposed to increase the land under cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue willingly without coercion.
• Pargana: Headed by Shiqdar (executive officer) who assisted Amalguzar in revenue collection.
• Quanungo: maintained land records. 
• Kotwals: appointed in towns, maintained law and order.
• Village: Headed by Muqaddam (village headman).
• Patwari: managed village revenue records
• Zamindars: assisted in law and order and revenue collection. 
• Forts were administered by a Qiladar.

3. Land Revenue System

• Land Revenue Arrangements include two stages of revenue collection: Assessment (Jama) and Actual collection (Hasil).
• Modified Land Revenue Systems:  Modified Sher Shah’s system and Raja Todar Mal refined it further by standardizing land measurement and classification. 
  • Revenue was set at one-third of average produce and was primarily paid in cash.
• Zabt/Zabti System: (enforced by Sher Shah and adopted by Akbar), associated with Raja Todar Mal, also called Todar Mal’s Bandobast.
• Dahsala System: introduced in 1580 AD, calculated revenue based on the average yield of the past ten years, factoring in local prices. 
  • Parganas with similar productivity were organised into distinct assessment circles.
• Classification of Lnads: Land was categorised into the following with their respective assessment rates:
  • Polaj (under cultivation almost every year),
  • Parati (uncultivated land), 
  • Chachar (fallow for two to three years),
  • Banjar (fallow more than five years) 
  • Karoris: were appointed for collection and audit of revenue.
• Amils (revenue collectors): were encouraged to support peasants by providing Taccavi loans for diverse needs and enabling repayment in manageable installments.
• Methods of Assessment Used During Akbar’s Reign:
  • Batai/Ghalla Bakhshi: Crop-sharing between the cultivator and the state, paid in cash or kind. It includes
    • Batai or Bhaoli (Crops divided after reaping); 
    • Khet-Batai (Fields divided after sowing); 
    • Lang-Batai (Grain divided after harvest and stacking)
  • Hast-o-bud: Officials estimated total produce and fixed the revenue demand by inspecting the village, and may consider the number of ploughs to assess the total produce.
  • Kankut: Land was measured, and yield per unit for each crop was estimated and applied to the area under cultivation. 
  • Nasaq: Used previous assessments to calculate the state revenue.
• Mansabdari System: The term “mansabdar” referred to an individual who held a mansab, meaning a position or rank. 
  • It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix (1) rank, (2) salary, and (3) military responsibilities. 
  • Zat: Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat. 
    • The higher the zat, the more prestigious the noble’s position in court and the larger his salary. 
  • Mansabdars’ Military Obligations and Salary Arrangements: The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen. 
    • The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their horses branded, and then received money to pay them as salary. 
    • Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs.
• Land Division for Revenue Collection: For revenue purposes, all the land was divided into two – the Jagir and Khalisa. 
  • The land revenue collected from the Khalisa went to the royal treasury, while that from Jagir went to mansabdars.
• Administration of Jagirs: Jagirs were somewhat like iqtas. But unlike muqtis, most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their jagirs. 
  • The revenue was collected for them by their servants while the mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country. 
• Transfer and Inheritance of Jagirs: Jagirs were subject to regular transfers and were not hereditary. 
  • Further, these were reverted to the state upon Mansabdar’s death.
• Rank Diversity and Evolution of Nobility: Ranks ranged from 10 to 5,000, with exceptional figures like Raja Man Singh and Mirza Aziz Koka holding 7,000. 
  • The system led to a diversity of nobility, initially Central Asians and Persians, but later included Rajputs and Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims).
• Rajput Policy: Adopted a conciliatory policy, forming matrimonial alliances with their families and assigning high court positions to them.
  • He married Harkha Bai (daughter of Raja Bhar Mal of Amber) and princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalmer. 

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Conclusion

Akbar’s administrative reforms laid a strong foundation for the Mughal Empire’s governance. His policies of centralization, efficient revenue collection, and military organization contributed to the empire’s stability and expansion. The conciliatory approach towards Rajputs also fostered unity and cooperation, ensuring a prosperous and harmonious reign.

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