In the tense atmosphere of 14 July 1789, Paris found itself on edge due to the king’s troop movements and circulating rumors of a potential order to open fire on its citizens. Responding to these fears, approximately 7,000 Parisians assembled at town hall, culminating in a decision to form a people’s militia. This decision saw them raid government buildings for weapons.

French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century

Troublesome Royalty: In 1774, 20-year-old Louis XVI from Bourbon family became king of France. He was married to the Austrian princess, Marie Antoinette.

• Empty Exchequer: At start of Louis XVI  reign, France’s treasury was empty. Previous wars had severely depleted France’s financial resources.
  • Cost of maintaining the extravagant Versailles Palace further strained the finances.
• Debt Burden: Under Louis XVI, France assisted thirteen American colonies in their fight for independence against Britain.
  • This war added over a billion livres to an already existing debt of more than 2 billion livres.
• High Interest Payment: State’s creditors began charging 10% interest on loans, leading to a significant portion of the budget being spent on just interest payments.
• Taxation Challenges: To cover regular state expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, court, and running government offices or universities, taxes were increased.
• • Societal structure and arrangement forced only third estate to pay these taxes, despite them being the least affluent.
• Estate System:  It was a stratified system consisting of the clergy, nobility, and commoners; with interlocking legal rights and obligations. It includes three estates  (Refer to Figure 4.1). 
  •  The first estate was composed of clergy and the Second estate consisted of nobility. Both enjoyed certain privileges by birth. 
    • First and Second Estate were  exempted from paying taxes to state. Nobility enjoyed feudal privileges like  feudal dues, i.e. extracted from  peasants. 
    • Third Estate consisted of Common people such as peasants, workers, etc. Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord by working in his house and fields to serve in the army or to participate in building roads.
• Land Distribution:  About 90% of population were peasants, but a majority didn’t own the land they cultivated.
  • Approximately 60% of land was owned by nobles, the Church, and richer members of the third estate.
• Privileges: First two estates enjoyed privileges i.e. tax exemption. Nobles had additional feudal privileges, and Church took tithes from peasants.
• Burden: The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone.
  • All members of third estate had to pay taxes to state, these included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco.

The Struggle to Survive in Old Regime France

Population Explosion: The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.

• Escalating Demand for Food: This population boom led to a heightened demand for food grains. Unfortunately, grain production lagged behind this demand. Figure 4.2 shows the course of the subsistence crisis. 
• Soaring Bread Prices: Bread, being the staple diet for the majority, experienced rapid price inflation.
• Rising Economic Inequality: Most French workers were laborers in workshops, and their wages were determined by workshop owners. 
  • These wages didn’t rise proportionately with the surging prices, leading to an expanding economic disparity between the rich and poor.
• Impact of Natural Calamities: Droughts or hailstorms occasionally hit the country, further dwindling harvest. 
  • These situations led to what was termed a “subsistence crisis,” a recurring issue in France during the Old Regime period.

A Growing Middle Class and the Vision for Social Equality

Rise of the Middle Class: The 18th century saw the rise of middle class, a segment within the third estate.

• • It accumulated wealth from burgeoning overseas trade and the production of goods like woollen and silk textiles.
  • Their customer base included both foreign entities and affluent members of their society.
• Composition of Third Estate: It is composed of merchants, manufacturers,  professionals like lawyers, and administrative officials.
  • With education and newfound wealth, this segment believed in merit over birthright for societal positions.
• Philosophical Foundations for Change: Philosophers like John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau introduced revolutionary ideas:
  • Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, challenged the divine and unchallenged right of monarchs.
  • Rousseau proposed governance based on a social contract between populace and their chosen representatives.
  • Montesquieu, in Spirit of the Laws, suggested segregating governmental power among the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches.
• Dissemination of Revolutionary Ideas: Philosophical discussions became a mainstay in places like salons and coffeehouses.
• Books, newspapers, and public readings ensured that these revolutionary thoughts reached even those who were illiterate.
• Immediate Public Outrage: News about King Louis XVI’s plans to levy more taxes sparked widespread indignation, further igniting opposition against the privileged system.
  • Their endeavors led them to iconic Bastille, a despised symbol of king’s despotism. Although they hoped to find vast stores of ammunition, they only discovered seven prisoners. 
  • This event became symbolic as fortress was razed, its stone remnants sold as souvenirs. 
  • The subsequent days witnessed further upheaval, both in Paris and countryside, largely fueled by grievances over prohibitive cost of bread

Conclusion 

In previous times, revolts by peasants and workers arose due to mounting taxes and food shortages. However, they lacked the tools and strategies to instigate a full-fledged transformation in the societal and economic fabric. Emergence of middle class gave an intellectual base for public outrage.

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