Under colonial rule, pastoralist’s grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated, the revenue they had to pay increased, agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were adversely affected. The colonial state wanted to transform all grazing lands into cultivated farms. Land revenue was one of the main sources of its finance. 

Maximising Land Revenue

Expanding Cultivation: By expanding cultivation it could increase its revenue collection and at the same time produce more jute, cotton, wheat and other agricultural produce that were required in England. 

• Colonial View: To colonial officials all uncultivated land was seen as a ‘wasteland’; it produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce.
• Waste Land Rules: From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country and by this uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. 
• Incentivizing Land Reclamation: These individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle these lands. Some of them were made headmen of villages in newly cleared areas. 
• Impact on Pastoralists: In most areas lands taken over were grazing tracts, so expansion of cultivation inevitably meant decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.

Regulating Forests and Pastrolist 

By the mid-19th century, various Forest Acts were also being enacted and forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. 

• Restricted Access: Other forests were classified as ‘Protected’ and in these, some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted but their movements were severely restricted. 
• Grazing Ban: The officials believed that grazing destroyed saplings and young shoots of trees that germinated on the forest floor. This prevented new trees from growing. 
• Curtailment of Pastoralists’ Forest Rights: These Forest Acts prevented pastoralists from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. 
• Permits and Restrictions on Pastoralist Movement: Even in the areas they were allowed entry, they needed a permit for entry. 
  • Timing of their entry and departure was specified, and number of days they could spend in the forest was limited. 
• Loss of Autonomy: Pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available, the grass was succulent and the undergrowth in forest was ample. 
  • They had to move because Forest Department permits that had been issued to them now ruled their lives. If they overstayed they were liable to fines.

British Perception of Threat

British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages, and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures. 

• Sedentary Population: Colonial government wanted to rule over a population living in villages, in fixed places with fixed rights in particular fields. Such a population was easy to identify and control. 
• Criminal Labelling: Those who were settled were seen as peaceable and law-abiding and those who were nomadic were considered to be criminals. 
  • Through the Criminal Tribes Act, of 1871, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes and were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. 
• Confinement and Surveillance: Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements and were not allowed to move out without a permit. 
  • Also, village police kept a continuous watch on them.

Maximising British Revenue

To expand its revenue, the colonial government imposed taxes on land, canal water, salt, trade goods, and even on animals. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. 

• Introduction of Grazing Tax: In mid-19th century, in most pastoral tracts of India, a grazing tax was introduced. 
  • The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. 
• Tax Collection through Contractors: Between 1850s and 1880s right to collect tax was auctioned out to contractors and these contractors tried to extract as high a tax as they could to recover money they had paid to the state and earn as much profit as they could within the year. 
• Direct Tax Collection: By the 1880s the government began collecting taxes directly from pastoralists. 
• Grazing Permits: Each of them was given a pass to enter a grazing tract and had to pay tax. 
  • The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid were entered on the pass.

These Changes Affected the Lives of Pastoralists

Shrinking Grazing Lands: When grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivated fields, the available area of pastureland declined. 

• Restricted Forest Grazing: Similarly, the reservation of forests meant that shepherds and cattle herders could no longer freely pasture their cattle in the forests. 
• Intensified Grazing Pressure: As pasturelands disappeared under plough, existing animal stock had to feed on remaining grazing land which led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. 
• Deteriorating Pastures and Pastoralism: When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used and the quality of pastures declined. 
  • This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock. 
  • Underfed cattle died in large numbers during scarcities and famines.

Pastoralist’s Reaction to These Changes

Some Pastoralists reduced the number of cattle in their herds since there was not enough pasture to feed large numbers. Others discovered new pastures when movement to old grazing grounds became difficult. 

• Partition-led loss of Grazing Land: After 1947, Raikas, for instance, could no longer move into Sindh and graze their camels on banks of Indus, as they had done earlier. 
  • New political boundaries between India and Pakistan stopped their movement. 
    • So they had to find new places to go. 
• New Migration Pattern: In recent years they have been migrating to Haryana where sheep can graze on agricultural fields after the harvests are cut. 
  • Over the years, some richer pastoralists began buying land and settling down, giving up their nomadic life. 
  • Some became settled peasants cultivating land, others took to more extensive trading. 
• Debt Burden: Many poor pastoralists borrowed money from moneylenders to survive. 
  • At times they lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers, working in fields or small towns. 
• Resilience and Adoption: When pasturelands in one place were closed to them, they changed direction of their movement, reduced size of the herd, combined pastoral activity with other forms of income and adapted to the changes in the modern world. 
  • Many ecologists believe that in dry regions and the mountains, pastoralism is still ecologically the most viable form of life. 

Conclusion

British colonial administration’s focus on revenue maximization led to policies that drastically impacted pastoralists. By converting grazing lands into cultivated fields and imposing strict forest regulations, they disrupted traditional livelihoods. Excessive taxation, coupled with criminalization of nomadic communities, marginalized pastoralists further. While some adapted, many suffered economic hardship and loss of autonomy. This legacy continues to influence the lives of pastoral communities in India.

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