India’s democratic journey post-independence has been tumultuous, presenting various challenges and lessons for its diverse population. The period following 1967, marked primarily by the leadership of Indira Gandhi, serves as an emblematic testament to the resilience and complexities of India’s democracy. Here we shed light on crises of democratic order that unfolded, diving deep into contexts that led to a declaration of Emergency, its implications, political milieu post-emergency, and stalwarts who played pivotal roles during this era.

Background to Emergency

Dominant Leadership: The period post-1967 saw Indira Gandhi as a dominant leader with significant popularity.

• Polarised and Tense Political Environment: 
  • There was a strained relationship between government and judiciary.
  • The Supreme Court found the government’s initiatives against the Constitution.
  • The Congress party viewed this as a challenge to democracy and parliamentary supremacy.
• Congress Split: The split in Congress intensified the divide between Indira Gandhi and her opponents.

Economic Context of the Early 1970s in India

Congress’ Political Promises: In 1971, the Congress party promoted the slogan “garibi hatao” (remove poverty). Despite the promise, socio-economic conditions showed minimal improvement post-1971-72.

• External Economic Challenges:
  • Bangladesh Crisis and Its Aftermath: India faced economic strain (Refer to Figure 6.1) due to the influx of around eight million refugees from East Pakistan.

• • •  The situation escalated into a war with Pakistan.
• U.S. Aid Cessation: Following the war, U.S. terminated all financial assistance to India.
• Global Oil Price Surge: A significant rise in oil prices in the international market led to inflation. 
  • Commodity prices increased by 23% in 1973 and 30% in 1974, causing hardship.
• Domestic Economic Struggles:
  • Industrial & Employment Challenges: The period witnessed stagnant industrial growth and rising unemployment, especially in rural areas.
  • Government’s Austerity Measures: The government initiated a freeze on employee salaries, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among its workforce.
  • Agricultural Setbacks: Failed monsoons in 1972-73 resulted in an 8% drop in food grain production.
• Societal & Political Reactions:
  • General Discontent: The country experienced a pervasive mood of dissatisfaction due to the economic downturn.
  • Students’ Protests: Student unrest from the late 1960s intensified during this period.
  • Emergence of Extremist Factions: Marxist groups, skeptical of parliamentary politics, gained momentum.
  • Known as the Marxist-Leninist or Naxalites, they embraced insurgent techniques to challenge the capitalist system.
• Their stronghold was especially evident in West Bengal, prompting the state government to enact strict countermeasures.

Movements in Gujarat and Bihar and Their Impact on National Politics

Movement in Gujarat (Refer to Figure 6.2):

• Initial Outcry: In January 1974, students in Gujarat protested against inflation, particularly in essential commodities, and corruption at higher levels.
• Escalation of the Movement: The agitation grew as major opposition parties joined, leading to the President’s rule in Gujarat.
• Opposition’s Demand: Parties called for fresh state assembly elections.
• Morarji Desai, a leader of Congress (O) and Indira Gandhi’s key rival, threatened an indefinite fast unless fresh elections were announced.
• Outcome: Under immense pressure, elections were held in June 1975, which resulted in a Congress defeat.
• Movement in Bihar (Refer to Figure 6.2):
• Origin of the Movement: In March 1974, students in Bihar protested against inflation, food shortage, unemployment, and corruption.
• Involvement of Jayaprakash Narayan (JP): Students invited JP, a retired politician turned social worker, to lead the movement. 
• He agreed under conditions of non-violence and a broader scope beyond Bihar.
• Evolving Nature: With JP’s leadership, the movement garnered national appeal and political character. Participants ranged from all sectors of society.
• JP called for a “total revolution” in social, economic, and political domains, aiming for what he perceived as genuine democracy.
• Despite various forms of protests like bandhs, gheraos, and strikes against the Bihar government, the government did not step down.
• National Impact:
  • Expansion Ambitions: JP aimed to spread the Bihar movement nationally. Concurrently, Railway employees announced a nationwide strike, risking nationwide paralysis.
  • In 1975, JP led a massive march to Parliament, one of the largest in the capital’s history.
  • Political Support: JP was endorsed by various non-Congress opposition parties such as Bharatiya Jana Sangh, Congress (O), Bharatiya Lok Dal, and the Socialist Party.
  • These parties presented JP as an alternative to Indira Gandhi. However, there were critiques regarding JP’s methods and the strategy of mass agitations.
• Perception of the Movements:
  • Both Gujarat and Bihar movements were perceived as anti-Congress. Rather than opposing state governments, they were interpreted as protests against Indira Gandhi’s leadership.
  • Indira Gandhi viewed the movement as a personal attack against her.

Conflict with Judiciary and Its Implications

Constitutional Disputes

• Parliament vs. Judiciary: There was a prolonged disagreement over three major constitutional issues.
• Abridging Fundamental Rights: The Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament couldn’t reduce these rights.
• Right to Property: The Court decided that the Parliament couldn’t amend the Constitution in a way that curtails rights, specifically property rights.
• Amendment for Directive Principles: Despite Parliament’s amendment to the Constitution allowing for the abridgment of Fundamental Rights in favour of Directive Principles, the Supreme Court rejected this provision.
• Kesavananda Bharati Case and Appointment of CJI:
  • Significance: This pivotal case resulted in the Court’s decision that there are certain basic features of the Constitution that Parliament cannot amend.
  • 1973 Controversy: Following the Keshavananda Bharati case’s decision, a Chief Justice vacancy appeared.
  • Rather than following the tradition of appointing senior-most judge, the government overlooked the seniority of three judges and appointed Justice A. N. Ray.
• This became a politically charged decision as the three superseded judges had previously ruled against the government’s stance.
• Merging Politics and Interpretations: With these events, constitutional interpretations and political beliefs began intertwining. 
  • Some of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s allies advocated for a judiciary and bureaucracy that would be ‘committed‘ to executive and legislative visions.
• Climactic Ruling on Indira Gandhi’s Election :
  • The peak of these confrontations was the High Court’s verdict that declared Indira Gandhi’s election as void, intensifying existing conflicts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the 1970s crisis, marked by socio-economic challenges and political unrest, led to Emergency, showcasing India’s democratic vulnerabilities. The movements in Gujarat and Bihar, conflicts between judiciary and executive, and Indira Gandhi’s controversial rule reshaped India’s political landscape, highlighting the necessity for strong democratic institutions.

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