Expanding Quality Higher Education Through States And State Public Universities

Recently, NITI Aayog launched a policy report titled ‘Expanding Quality Higher Education through States and State Public Universities’.

About Higher Education

Tertiary education follows School education, and is known as Higher Education.
Higher education (HE) is the form of learning which takes place in a University or a College and comprises study programs beyond senior secondary level of schooling.
Higher education or tertiary education refers to education in universities- both public and private, colleges, and professional and technical training institutes.

Education System in India

Formal education is offered at three different stages or levels in India-these are: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary.
Primary and Secondary education deal with education offered at School and come under the purview of School education.

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Key Highlights of the Report

Key Highlights on Education Spending
- Jammu & Kashmir has the highest education expenditure as a percentage of state GDP at 8.11%, followed by: Manipur (7.25%), Meghalaya (6.64%), Tripura (6.19%)
- States with low education spending as a percentage of state GDP: Delhi (1.67%), Telangana (2%), Karnataka (2.01%)
Trends in Higher Education Expenditure
- Growth in per youth spending on higher education: ₹2,174 (2005-06) → ₹4,921 (2019-20).
- Top spenders in per youth spending: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
- States lagging in per youth spending: Rajasthan, Punjab, Chhattisgarh
Higher Education Spending as % of GSDP
- Highest: Bihar – 1.56%
  - Jammu & Kashmir – 1.53%
  - Manipur – 1.45%
- Lowest: Telangana – 0.18%
  - Gujarat, Rajasthan – 0.23% each
University Density and Accessibility
- National average: 0.8 universities per lakh population.
- Highest density: Sikkim (10.3)
  - Followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Uttarakhand
- Lowest density: Bihar (0.2)
  - Followed by Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra (below national average)
Gender-based Higher Education Enrolment Trends
- Higher female enrolment rates than males: Kerala, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh (successful models for women’s education).
- Balanced male-female enrolments: Chandigarh, Mizoram, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Number of Universities by Type in India

Central University (CU): Established or incorporated by an Act of the Central Government.
- Total: 53 Central Universities, and 1 Central Open University for distance learning.
State Public University (SPU): Established or incorporated by a Provincial Act or by a State Act.
- Total: 423 State Public Universities, and 16 State Open Universities for technology-based distance learning.
Private University: Established through a State or Central Act by a sponsoring body (Society, Public Trust, or Company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956).
- Total: 391 Private Universities.
Deemed-to-be University (DU): High-performing institution declared as such by the Central Government under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956.
- Subtypes: Government, Government Aided, Private.
- Total: 124 Deemed Universities.
Institution of National Importance (INI): Established by an Act of Parliament and declared as an Institution of National Importance (e.g., IITs, NITs, IIMs).
- Total: 153 INIs.
  - Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs): 23
  - Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs): 21
Institution under State Legislature Act: Established or incorporated by a State Legislature Act.
Total: 6 Institutions.

Key Statistics:

Total Student Enrollment (2021-22): Approximately 4.33 crore students in higher education institutions.
Total Number of Teachers in Higher Education (2021-22): 15.98 lakh teachers across all types of higher education institutions.
Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) in Higher Education: Approximately 23 students per teacher (2021-22).

Historical Commissions and Their Impact

Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-49):

Led by: Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Key Recommendations:
- Universities should become teaching institutions rather than just affiliating bodies.
- Establishment of the University Grants Commission (UGC) in 1956 to coordinate academic activities and maintain standards.
- Emphasis on regional languages for higher education, with English as a secondary medium.
- Promotion of research and professional education.

Kothari Commission (1964-66):

Led by: Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari
Key Recommendations:
- Education should receive 6% of GDP (a target not yet met).
- Focus on science and technology education.
- Qualitative improvement in teaching and learning processes.

National Knowledge Commission (2005):

Objective: To advise the Prime Minister on policies to transform India into a knowledge economy.
Key Recommendations:
- Establishment of 1,500 universities to achieve a Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) of 15% by 2015.
- Creation of 50 national universities as centers of excellence.
- University autonomy with self-regulation.
- Establishment of an Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education (IRAHE).
- Integration of vocational training into higher education.
- Expansion of institutions like IITs and IIMs into full-fledged universities.

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Indian Higher Education: From Ancient to Modern Times

Ancient Indian Higher Education (Before 10th Century CE)
- Philosophy: Education was holistic, focusing on knowledge (Vidya), morality, and skill development rather than just academic learning.
- Gurukul System
  - Teacher (Guru) – Disciple (Shishya) tradition with emphasis on oral transmission of knowledge.
  - Famous Gurukuls: Located in Kashi, Ujjain, and Pushpagiri.
- Early Universities
- Takshashila (6th century BCE – 5th century CE): First recorded university in the world.
  - Notable scholars: Chanakya (Arthashastra), Panini (Sanskrit grammar), Charaka (medicine).
- Nalanda University (5th century CE – 12th century CE): First residential university with 10,000+ students and 2,000 teachers.
  - Attracted scholars from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, and Persia.
  - Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji (1193 CE).
- Vikramshila University (8th–12th century CE): Known for Buddhist studies and Tantric education.
- Valabhi, Odantapuri, and Pushpagiri Universities also flourished during this period.
- Features of Ancient Higher Education
  - Multidisciplinary approach with practical knowledge.
  - Global knowledge hub with international students.
  - Residential system with large libraries (e.g., Nalanda had a library called Dharmaganja).
Medieval Period (10th–18th Century CE)
- Decline of ancient universities due to invasions and destruction.
- Rise of Madrasas (Islamic learning centers) focusing on Arabic, Persian, law, and theology.
- Mughal period saw establishment of learning centers in Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri.
- Emperor Akbar’s “Din-i-Ilahi” promoted knowledge exchange between different religions.
- Hindu temples and monasteries continued informal learning traditions.
Colonial Period (18th–20th Century)
- Destruction of indigenous learning centers and imposition of British education policies.
- MountStuart Elphinstone’s Minutes (1823) and Macaulay’s Minute (1835) led to the promotion of English education over traditional Indian knowledge.
- Introduction of modern universities:
  - Calcutta University, Bombay University, and Madras University (1857) based on the University of London model.
  - Focused on administrative and clerical education rather than scientific research.
- Rise of nationalist education movements:
  - Rabindranath Tagore’s Visva-Bharati University (at Santiniketan in 1921).
  - Banaras Hindu University (BHU) (Founded by Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1916).
  - Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) (Founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1875).
Post-Independence Era (1947–2000s)
- Focus on higher education expansion with central and state universities.
- Establishment of IITs (Indian Institutes of Technology) and IIMs (Indian Institutes of Management).
  - Following the recommendations of the Sarkar Committee (1945) to build institutions that could produce world-class engineers to drive India’s post-independence industrialization, the first IIT was set up in Kharagpur in 1951.
  - In the late 1950s, the Planning Commission of India recommended the establishment of management institutes to fulfil the need for quality management education in India, after which the first IIM was established in Calcutta in 1961.
- University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, 1956 to regulate higher education.
- National Education Policies (NEP 1968, 1986, 1992) aimed at universal access and research development.
- Rapid privatization in the 1990s and 2000s.

Regulatory Bodies in Higher Education

University Grants Commission (UGC): Established by the UGC Act, 1956, coordinates and maintains standards of university education, provides grants to universities.
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE): Set up under the AICTE Act, 1987, promotes and regulates quality technical education, sets norms for technical institutes.
National Medical Commission (NMC): Replaced the Medical Council of India (MCI) through the Indian Medical Council Amendment Act, 2019, regulates medical education and standards.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR): An autonomous organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, established in 1929, oversees agricultural education and research.
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE): Constituted by the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993, regulates teacher education, sets norms for teacher training institutions.

Contemporary Higher Education (2000–Present)
- Second Largest higher education system in the world (1,100+ universities, 50,000+ colleges).
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020:
  - Multidisciplinary universities and holistic learning.
  - Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) target of 50% by 2035.
  - Academic Bank of Credits (ABC), multiple entry-exit options.
- Emphasis on digital learning (SWAYAM, NPTEL, e-Pathshala).
- R&D investments and global collaborations.

Key Challenges in Higher Education in India

Quality of Education

Poor Research Output: India ranks low in global research publications and patents.
- Lack of funding for R&D, especially in State Public Universities (SPUs).
- Overemphasis on rote learning rather than critical thinking and innovation.
Outdated Curriculum: Mismatch between education and industry requirements.
- Slow curriculum updates fail to address 21st-century skills.
- Need for greater interdisciplinary learning and research-oriented courses.
Faculty shortage: Many universities have vacant teaching positions.
- Non-finalization of recruitment rules delays hiring of qualified faculty.
- Over 40% of faculty positions remain vacant, and only 10% SPUs have well-equipped research facilities, significantly impacting learning outcomes.
Faculty Role Mismatch: Faculty primarily recruited for teaching rather than research, leading to a lack of research capacity.
Inadequate Infrastructure: Many SPUs lack labs, digital resources, libraries, and research facilities.
- Limited digitalization in rural institutions, affecting e-learning.

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Access and Equity

Regional Disparities: Higher education concentrated in urban areas, leaving rural students with fewer options.
- University density varies: Bihar (0.2) vs. Sikkim (10.3) universities per lakh population.
Low Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER): India’s GER (28.4%) is lower than developed countries (above 50%).
- NEP 2020 aims for 50% GER by 2035, but rapid expansion is needed.
Gender and Social Gaps: Higher female enrolment in states like Kerala, Chhattisgarh but lower in Bihar, Rajasthan.
- Marginalized groups (SCs, STs, OBCs, economically weaker sections) still face barriers to higher education.
High Dropout Rates: Due to financial constraints, lack of job opportunities, and social factors.
- Need for better scholarships and support for economically disadvantaged students.

Funding and Financial Constraints

Low Government Spending: India spends ~4.5% of GDP on education (target: 6% as per NEP 2020).
- Declining state funding for SPUs; most funds go to salaries, not infrastructure or research.
Limited Private Investment in Research: R&D spending in India is just 0.7% of GDP (China: 2.4%, USA: 3%).
- Need for industry-academia partnerships to fund applied research.
Fee Structure Issues: State Public Universities have low fees, making them dependent on government grants.
- Private universities charge high fees, making education inaccessible to lower-income groups.

Governance and Autonomy Issues

Rigid Regulatory Framework: Universities face excessive control from UGC, AICTE, state governments.
- Delays in policy implementation due to bureaucratic inefficiencies.
Frequent Leadership Changes: Political interference affects Vice-Chancellor appointments and decision-making.
- Lack of long-term vision in university administration.
Affiliation Model Burden: Many State Public Universities have 300+ affiliated colleges, making quality control difficult.
- Need for greater autonomy for institutions.

Employability and Skill Mismatch

Low Industry Collaboration: Outdated courses fail to align with industry needs.
- Lack of internship and practical training opportunities.
High Graduate Unemployment: Over 50% of Indian graduates are unemployable due to lack of soft skills and hands-on experience.
- Need for vocational training and entrepreneurship programs.
Limited Digital and Tech-Skills Training: Slow adoption of AI, Data Science, and Digital Learning in universities.
- Need for stronger STEM education focus.

Internationalization and Global Ranking Issues

Few Indian Universities in Global Rankings:
- Only a few institutions (IITs, IISc, AIIMS) rank among the top 500 globally.
- Need for better faculty recruitment, research funding, and global collaborations.
Limited International Student Enrollment: India attracts fewer foreign students compared to China, the US, and the UK.
- India attracts only 50,000 international students, whereas China hosts over 500,000 foreign students and 10 lakh foreign students studying in the United States (US).

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Open and Distance Learning (ODL) System in Higher Education

The ODL system in higher education provides a learner-centric approach where education can be pursued at any time and any place.
It does not mandate physical presence at specific times or locations, offering flexibility in terms of admission, study pace, and location.
ODL Institutes in India:
- The first open university was established in India in 1982 as Andhra Pradesh Open University, now known as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University.
- The central government set up the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) in 1985.
- Currently, there is one central open university (IGNOU) and 14 state open universities.

Policy Recommendation by NITI Aayog

Higher Education

Way Forward to Strengthen Higher Education in India

Increase Public Spending on Education and Research: Allocate 6% of GDP to education (as per NEP 2020). Currently, India spends ~4.5%, much lower than China (6.5%) and USA (7%).
- Increase R&D investment to 2% of GDP (currently 0.7%), aligning with global leaders like China (2.4%) and the USA (3%).
- Encourage private sector investment in research and innovation by offering tax incentives and grants for university-industry partnerships.
Reform Curriculum to Match Industry Needs and Future Skills: Implement multidisciplinary education as per NEP 2020, integrating STEM, humanities, and vocational skills.
- Increase focus on AI, Data Science, Cybersecurity, and Green Technologies to match global industry demands.
Improve Faculty Recruitment and Teacher Training: Fill vacant faculty positions quickly through transparent and merit-based recruitment.
- Offer competitive salaries to attract global talent, similar to China’s “Thousand Talents Plan”.
Strengthen Digital Infrastructure and Online Learning: Bridge the digital divide by ensuring affordable internet access and smart classrooms in rural universities.
- Use AI-driven personalized learning tools to improve student engagement and skill tracking.
Promote Research and Innovation in Universities: Set up specialized research clusters in universities for AI, Space, Healthcare, and Renewable Energy.
- Provide financial incentives to universities that focus on high-quality research and patents.
Decentralized Governance and Give Universities More Autonomy: Reduce bureaucratic interference in university administration to ensure faster decision-making.
- Grant more autonomy to SPUs in setting fees, curriculum, and partnerships.
- Shift from affiliation-based systems to independent degree-awarding institutions to improve academic quality.
Improve Global Rankings and Attract International Students: Encourage Indian universities to participate in global ranking frameworks like THE, QS, and ARWU.
- Set up Indian campuses of foreign universities to increase cross-cultural academic exchanges.
Boost Employability and Entrepreneurship: Expand internship and apprenticeship programs in partnership with industries and startups.
- Promote entrepreneurship incubators within universities to support student-led startups.
Strengthen Industry-Academia Collaboration: Set up industry-sponsored research chairs in engineering, healthcare, agriculture, and emerging fields.
- Encourage universities to partner with multinational companies for real-world projects.

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Conclusion

To overcome challenges in higher education, India needs comprehensive reforms in funding, governance, research, infrastructure, employability, and internationalization. With these reforms, India can achieve its “Viksit Bharat @2047” vision, positioning itself as a global education and innovation hub.

Additional Reading: National Education Policy and Implementation Challenges

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