As the July 9 deadline approaches, US negotiators are urging India to open its agriculture market to genetically modified (GM) crops. 

Agriculture in India

• Agriculture remains the primary livelihood for over 40% of India’s population.
• Contributes about 18% to India’s GDP (as per 2023-24 estimates).
• It is vital for food security, rural employment, and export earnings.
• However, the sector is plagued by:
  • Low productivity compared to global standards.
  • High vulnerability to climate shocks and pest infestations.
  • Input-intensive farming (fertilizer, pesticide) degrading soil and water quality.
  • Fragmented landholdings and stagnant technology adoption.
• Need for Technological Interventions: To address stagnating yields and ensure food security, agricultural biotechnology is being promoted globally.
  • Genetically Modified (GM) crops represent one such innovation.

What Are GM Crops?

• Genetically Modified (GM) crops are plants whose genetic material (DNA) is altered using modern biotechnology or genetic engineering techniques.
• The goal is to introduce desirable traits that are not naturally present or cannot be achieved through traditional breeding.
• The first genetically modified (GM) food ever made commercially available to the public was a tomato, invented in the US in 1994.
• As of 2023, over 200 million hectares of GM soyabean, maize, canola, and more are in cultivation across 76 countries.
• Common Traits Introduced:
  • Insect resistance (e.g., Bt gene from Bacillus thuringiensis)
  • Herbicide tolerance (e.g., glyphosate resistance)
  • Drought or salinity tolerance
  • Delayed ripening or improved shelf life
  • Enhanced nutrition (e.g., Golden Rice with Vitamin A)

How GM Technology Works ?

• Concept of Genetic Modification
  • Genetic modification involves altering the DNA of a plant by inserting foreign genes (transgenes) that express desired traits.
  • These genes may come from bacteria, viruses, animals, or other plants.
  • The goal is to give the plant a trait it does not naturally possess, such as resistance to pests or tolerance to herbicides/drought.
• Techniques of Gene Transfer
  • Agrobacterium-mediated Gene Transfer: Utilizes Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a natural soil bacterium that infects plants.
    • Scientists disarm the bacterium and use it as a vector to insert the desired gene into the plant genome.
    • Widely used for dicotyledonous plants like cotton and tomato.
  • Gene Gun (Biolistics): Microscopic gold or tungsten particles coated with the desired DNA are shot into plant cells.
    • Useful for monocots like maize and rice.
    • The DNA integrates randomly into the genome.
  • Genome Editing: Tools like CRISPR/Cas9 allow precise editing of native genes without foreign DNA insertion.
    • Still in research stages in India but seen as a next-gen technology for stress tolerance and nutritional traits.
• Gene Expression in Plants: Once inside, the transgene is expressed like a natural gene:
• • It produces a protein (e.g., Cry1Ac in Bt cotton) that affects pests.
  • In HT crops, the gene allows the plant to survive glyphosate herbicide sprays by degrading the chemical internally.
  • Example: Bt Cotton
    • Inserted Gene: Cry1Ac or Cry2Ab from Bacillus thuringiensis.
    • Expressed Protein: Produces a toxin in plant tissues.
    • Effect: Kills bollworms when they feed on the plant by disrupting gut lining.
• Gene Stacking (Multiple Traits)
  • Some GM crops carry more than one trait, such as:
    • Bt + HT cotton (pest + herbicide resistance).
  • Called “stacked genes” or stacked traits, now commonly demanded by farmers.

GM Crops in India

• Only Approved GM Crop for Commercial Cultivation: Bt Cotton
  • Bt Cotton (Bollgard I & II) was officially approved in 2002 by the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).
    • Cotton production surged from 13.6 million bales in 2002–03 to 39.8 million bales in 2013–14 showing a phenomenal 193 per cent growth.
  • As of 2023–24, over 90% of India’s cotton cultivation is under Bt cotton.
  • It led to significant gains in yield and reduction in pesticide use, especially in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
  • However, productivity gains have plateaued and declined since 2015 due to pest resistance and regulatory stagnation.
• Bt Brinjal: Approved but Under Moratorium
  • Developed by Mahyco in collaboration with Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and Cornell University.
  • Approved by GEAC in 2009, but put under an indefinite moratorium by the Ministry of Environment following public opposition and expert dissent .
  • Meanwhile, Bangladesh commercialized Bt brinjal in 2013, demonstrating regional divergence in policy.
• GM Mustard (DMH-11): Cleared with Conditions but Not Yet Commercialized
  • Developed by Delhi University using the barnase-barstar-bar gene system.
  • GEAC gave environmental clearance in October 2022 with a 4-year post-commercialization monitoring requirement .
  • Commercial release is still pending due to regulatory bottlenecks and possible Supreme Court intervention.
• Herbicide-Tolerant (HT) Bt Cotton: Not Approved but Widely Cultivated Illegally
  • HT-Bt cotton combines insect resistance and tolerance to glyphosate herbicide.
  • Official trials by Mahyco-Monsanto were stopped in the 2010s due to biosafety concerns.
  • Despite no approval, 15–25% of India’s cotton acreage uses illegal HT-Bt seeds, especially in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh .
  • This shadow market has created biosafety and accountability issues, while reflecting farmer demand for such technology.
• GM Soybean and GM Maize (Corn): GM soybean and maize are not approved for cultivation, though imported GM soy/corn have entered via poultry and cattle feed chains.
  • India continues to resist approval citing food safety, ecological, and trade sensitivity concerns.

Importance of GM Crops for India

• Bridging the Yield Gap: India’s yields in cotton, pulses, and oilseeds are far below global standards.
  • The Indian yield increased threefold over that period, the outcome of 504 kg/ha is still way behind the yield of 1,008 kg/ha of the USA and the 1,761 kg/ha of China.
• Reducing Input Costs and Chemical Dependence: GM crops like Bt cotton have reduced pesticide use by 50%, cutting costs and improving environmental safety.
  • HT crops reduce manual weeding burden, lowering labour dependency, especially in rainfed regions.
• Enhancing Climate Resilience: GM traits can improve drought, flood, and heat tolerance, making agriculture more resilient to climate change.
  • Essential for India’s monsoon-dependent and increasingly climate-vulnerable agriculture.
• Supporting Nutritional Security: Bio-fortified GM crops like Golden Rice and iron/zinc-rich cereals offer tools to combat hidden hunger.
  • Can supplement public nutrition programs (e.g., PDS, Mid-Day Meal).
• Boosting Farmers’ Income and Export Competitiveness: Bt cotton led to income gains and agrarian growth, particularly in Gujarat.
  • Wider GM adoption could revive exports (e.g., cotton, soy) and reduce import dependency (e.g., edible oils).
• Strengthening Indian R&D and Innovation Ecosystem: Homegrown technologies like GM mustard (DMH-11) reflect India’s capacity for innovation.
  • With proper support, India can become a seed tech hub for Asia & Africa under the ₹1 lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) initiative under Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF).

Applications of GM Crops

• Biofortification: It is the process of enhancing micronutrient content in crops.
  • Genetic modification has emerged as the most effective method for achieving biofortification.
  • For instance, β-carotene-enriched “Golden Rice”, introduced in 2000, was the first successful application of GM biofortification.
  • This innovation not only addresses malnutrition but also helps prevent diseases like cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular issues.
• Edible Vaccines: GM plants can be engineered to produce edible vaccines, which provide a safer and more cost-effective alternative to traditional vaccines.
  • These vaccines come with significant advantages, such as lower manufacturing costs and minimal side effects, making them an attractive innovation for global health.
• Biofuels: Fourth-generation biofuels which are derived from GM algae and cyanobacteria, are gaining attention for their potential to produce sustainable energy.
  • This application addresses global energy needs while reducing environmental impact.
• Phytoremediation: Genetic modification is being utilized in phytoremediation, which involves using GM plants to clean up soil and water pollutants.
  • By engineering plants with specific genes that produce pollutant-degrading enzymes.

Regulatory Framework of GM Crops in India

• Legal Basis: The regulation of genetically modified (GM) crops in India is governed under:
  • Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
  • Specifically, the Rules 1989 framed under Section 6, 8, and 25 of this Act.
  • These are known as the “Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells”.
• Key Regulatory Bodies
  • Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC): Under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
    • Final authority for granting environmental clearance for large-scale use and commercial release of GM organisms.
  • Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM): Under Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science & Technology
    • Monitors R&D, pre-commercial trials, biosafety studies, and approves confined field trials.
  • State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC): Monitors safety measures at state institutions.
  • District Level Committee (DLC): Conducts compliance inspections at the district level.

Criticism and Challenges of GM Crops in India

• Regulatory Bottlenecks and Delays: India’s GM crop approvals are governed by a multi-layered structure under the EPA, 1986 (Rules, 1989).
  • Example: Bt brinjal, cleared by GEAC in 2009, still remains under moratorium.
• Judicial Overhang and Policy Paralysis: A series of PILs and Supreme Court interventions have blocked or delayed GM crop deployment.
  • The Supreme Court-appointed TEC (Technical Expert Committee) recommended halting field trials of GM crop in 2013, citing biosafety and environmental concerns.
• Health and Environmental Concerns: Critics cite a lack of long-term evidence on GM foods’ effects on biodiversity, non-target organisms, and human health.
  • Environmentalists argue that GM crops may promote monocultures, threatening agro-diversity.
  • Example: Replacing diverse brinjal varieties with Bt brinjal can marginalize local strains.
  • But concerns over allergenic potential, gene transfer, and antibiotic resistance remain debated.
• Public Mistrust and Ideological Opposition: Strong opposition from NGOs, activists, and political groups has led to polarized public discourse.
  • For example, anti-GM campaigns halted the commercial release of Bt brinjal despite scientific approval.
• Lack of Transparency and Farmer Participation: Most decisions on GM trials and approvals are technocrat-led, excluding farmers and civil society.
  • There is no institutional mechanism for public hearings at trial or commercialization stages.
• Emergence of Superweeds and Pest Resistance: Continuous use of herbicide-tolerant crops like HT Bt cotton may cause glyphosate-resistant weeds.
• • Similarly, pests like pink bollworm developed resistance to Bt cotton, reducing its effectiveness.
• Corporate Control Over Seeds: GM technology is often patented, giving seed multinationals control over agricultural inputs.
  • This undermines farmer seed sovereignty and increases input cost dependency.
  • Example: Monsanto’s Bt cotton monopoly led to disputes over royalty fees in India.
• Disruption of Traditional Farming Practices: Traditional seed-saving and breeding practices decline as farmers shift to commercial GM seeds, which are non-replantable or discouraged from reuse.
• Non-Approval of Next-Generation GM Crops: India has not approved several next-gen GM crops (e.g., HT Bt cotton, GM mustard, Bt brinjal) despite successful trials and GEAC clearances in some cases. 
  • This has locked Indian agriculture into older GM technologies like Bt cotton (Bollgard-II), whose productivity gains have plateaued or declined over time due to pest resistance and lack of trait diversification.

Way Forward for GM Crops in India

• Strengthen Science-Based Regulatory Framework: Streamline approvals under GEAC and RCGM with time-bound, transparent, and risk-based evaluations.
  • Empower regulators to work independently of political and ideological pressures.
  • Example: Expedite final clearance for GM mustard (DMH-11), already cleared conditionally in 2022.
• Revise and Rationalize Trait Fee Policy: Revisit the Cotton Seed Price Control Order (SPCO, 2015) to ensure fair returns for private R&D.
• Legalize and Regulate Next-Gen GM Crops: Approve HT Bt cotton, Bt brinjal, GM mustard, and others under strict biosafety standards.
  • Monitor usage to curb illegal adoption and bring accountability to seed quality.
• Public Sector Investment in GM Research: Leverage the ₹1 lakh crore RDI fund (Research, Development, and Innovation) for indigenous biotech development.
  • Encourage public institutions (e.g., ICAR, IARI, DU) to commercialize their innovations like GM mustard.
• Enhance Public Engagement and Transparency: Build public trust via awareness campaigns, community trials, and participatory decision-making.
  • Involve farmers, scientists, and civil society in biosafety reviews to combat misinformation and ideological bias.
• Promote GM Exports and Seed Diplomacy: Make India a regional hub for GM seed technology for Asia and Africa.
  • India lost this potential due to delayed approvals and policy uncertainty between 2003–2021.
• Adopt a Plough-to-Plate Policy Vision: Integrate GM crops into a broader agri-tech policy that ensures food security, sustainability, and climate resilience.

Conclusion

India stands at a crossroads in agricultural biotechnology. While GM crops offer a path to food security, farmer welfare, and climate resilience, their adoption must balance scientific innovation with public trust, environmental safety, and regulatory integrity. A well-designed, transparent, and inclusive GM policy can unlock their true potential.

DOWNLOAD PDF