Recent Hindi-Marathi tensions in Maharashtra have reignited debates on language, culture, and identity in India, necessitating thoughtful deliberation.
- Tamil Nadu’s resistance to NEP 2020’s perceived Hindi imposition is feared as a threat to India’s linguistic diversity and secularism.
What is Language?
- Language is a system of communication using symbols (spoken, written, or signed) to convey meaning, ideas, emotions, and information.
- It is rule-governed, with grammar, syntax, and vocabulary, allowing speakers to create and understand infinite expressions.
- Language is not Mere Communication, it is a symbolic system representing history, worldview, and identity.
- UNESCO View: Language is central to cultural diversity and intangible heritage.
Language as a Cultural and Political Identity
- Language is a key component of cultural identity, shaping traditions, values, and social interactions.
- It acts as a repository of culture, preserving history, literature, and collective memory.
- Diversity in India: India is home to over 19,500 dialects, with 22 scheduled languages (Eighth Schedule of the Constitution) and numerous non-scheduled languages.
- Major linguistic families include Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman.
- Reorganization of States: The States Reorganisation Act, 1956, redrew state boundaries based on linguistic lines (e.g., Andhra Pradesh for Telugu speakers, Tamil Nadu for Tamil speakers).
- Linguistic identity fueled demands for statehood (e.g., Telangana, Gorkhaland).
| Language lies at the root of human identity, and to tamper with that is either poetry or treason.” —Terry Eagleton |
- Language and Federalism: Language shapes political mobilization and regional aspirations, sometimes leading to conflicts (e.g., anti-Hindi protests in Tamil Nadu).
- Political parties leverage linguistic identity to consolidate vote banks (e.g., Dravidian parties in Tamil Nadu).
India’s Linguistic Landscape
- India is one of the most linguistically diverse nations:
- 121 languages and 19,500+ dialects spoken (Census 2011).
- No national language; Hindi and English are official at the Union level.
- Language is deeply linked to identity, culture, and regional pride.
- Indian secularism, encompassing linguistic secularism, neither favors nor opposes any religion or language, yet is not neutral.
- Embedded in the Constitution as state policy, it empowers the state to combat communalism, whether religious or linguistic, to foster unity and diversity.
- Historical Context
- Colonial Legacy: British imposition of English marginalized Indian languages, creating a linguistic elite and disconnecting masses from governance.
- Indian National Movement emphasized linguistic diversity, with leaders like Gandhi advocating for Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) as a unifying language.
- Post-Independence Challenges: The choice of Hindi as the official language sparked debates, with non-Hindi states, especially Tamil Nadu, resisting perceived imposition (e.g., anti-Hindi protests in the 1960s).
- The States Reorganisation Act, 1956, redrew state boundaries based on linguistic lines, reinforcing regional linguistic identities while maintaining national unity.
- Evolution of Policy: The three-language formula and extension of English’s associate status (1967 amendment) addressed regional concerns, embodying linguistic secularism.
- Inclusion of languages like Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali in the Eighth Schedule (2003) reflects ongoing commitment to inclusivity.
Linguistic Secularism
- Linguistic Secularism is the principle that no language should be privileged or imposed by the State, similar to religious neutrality.
- It upholds equal respect and space for all languages in public discourse, governance, and education.
- Coincides with India’s multicultural and federal ethos, ensuring that linguistic identity is preserved alongside national unity.
Constitutional Framework
- Article 343: Designates Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union, with English as an associate language for 15 years (extendable), reflecting a balanced approach to avoid linguistic imposition.
- Article 345: Allows states to adopt any language(s) as their official language, recognizing regional linguistic identities.
- Article 347: Empowers the President to recognize a language for official use in a region if demanded by a significant population, promoting inclusivity.
- Article 350A: Mandates facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage, ensuring linguistic rights for minorities and regional communities.
- Article 29: Protects the right of any section of citizens to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture, reinforcing linguistic secularism.
- Eighth Schedule: Lists 22 languages (originally 14, expanded over time) to promote their development, ensuring equal status and opportunities for growth.
Migrant’s Role in Linguistic Integration
- Migrants as Agents of Cultural Adaptation
- Economic Necessity Drives Language Learning: Migrants—especially from labour-exporting states (UP, Bihar, Bengal)—learn local languages (Kannada, Marathi, Tamil) for survival in host cities.
- Example: Migrants in Chennai and Bengaluru pick up basic Tamil/Kannada to interact with customers or employers.
- Second-Generation Fluency: Children of migrants attending local schools often become fluent in regional languages, bridging communities.
- Hybrid Language Ecosystems: Cities develop creolised or mixed languages in informal spaces: e.g., Hindi-English-Marathi in Mumbai’s chawls and markets.
- Cultural Integration through Daily Interaction
- Service Sector Connect: Migrants as drivers, maids, shop workers, etc., use local phrases to build rapport with residents.
- Such use of local language strengthens the sense of city belonging and reduces alienation.
- Cultural Participation: Many migrants engage in local festivals and events, using local language phrases, slogans, or songs.
- This enables soft assimilation and mutual acceptance.
- Tensions and Disparities
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- Uneven Language Expectations: Working-class migrants are expected to learn local languages; elite migrants (corporates, tech workers) face no such pressure.
- Creates class-based linguistic resentment in host states.
- Political Exploitation: Anti-migrant rhetoric often uses “language” as a proxy to target vulnerable outsiders.
- Example: MNS attacks on Hindi-speaking shopkeepers in Mumbai over Marathi signage issues.
Benefits of Linguistic Integration
- Strengthens Social Cohesion: When migrants adopt local languages, it reduces cultural friction and builds everyday trust.
- Second-generation migrants in Chennai or Bengaluru speaking Tamil/Kannada foster better community bonds.
- Enriches Urban Multilingualism: Migrants contribute hybrid expressions, slang, and cultural idioms, enriching the host language.
- Dakhani (Hyderabad), Bambaiya Hindi (Mumbai) are linguistic products of integration.
- Empowers Economic Participation: Language fluency opens access to local job markets, governance processes, and public services.
- Migrants who learn the local language are more employable in customer-facing and civic roles.
- Fosters Mutual Cultural Respect: Linguistic exchange fosters appreciation of the host culture and mitigates linguistic chauvinism.
- Urdu learning as a hobby (Kala) and migrant adaptation in Kannada-speaking regions.
- Reduces ‘Outsider’ Tag and Political Targeting: Language integration reduces the perception of migrants as alien or invasive.
- Migrants speaking Marathi/Kannada face less hostility from political groups like MNS.
- Creates Cultural Syncretism: Mixed linguistic spaces promote inclusive urban cultures that transcend parochialism.
- Mumbai’s multilingual film, music, and street cultures reflect deep integration.
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Features of India’s Linguistic Secularism
- Neutrality in Governance: Use of Hindi and English in Union government functions, alongside state-specific official languages, avoids linguistic hegemony.
- Example: Official documents, parliamentary proceedings, and judicial processes use both Hindi and English, with provisions for regional languages in states.
- Linguistic Federalism: States are created largely on linguistic lines (States Reorganisation Act, 1956).
- Each state is free to choose its official language(s) (e.g., Tamil in TN, Marathi in Maharashtra, Urdu and Kashmiri in J&K).
- Promotion of Multilingualism: The three-language formula (1968) encourages learning the regional language, Hindi, and English (or another Indian language), fostering mutual respect for linguistic diversity.
- Example: Schools in non-Hindi states teach Hindi as a link language, while Hindi-speaking states include languages like Tamil or Bengali.
- Cultural Preservation: Institutions like the Sahitya Akademi and Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) promote literature and research in all Indian languages, ensuring no language is marginalized.
- Recognition of classical languages (e.g., Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Odia) underscores respect for linguistic heritage.
- Inclusivity of Minor Languages: Efforts to document and preserve endangered languages through schemes like the Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages (SPPEL).
- Example: Support for languages like Bodo, Santhali, and Great Andamanese to prevent cultural erosion.
- Non-Imposition of Hindi: Post-independence, the Official Languages Act, 1963, ensured continued use of English alongside Hindi to address concerns of non-Hindi-speaking states, particularly in South India.
- Flexibility in language policy prevents linguistic chauvinism and respects regional aspirations.
Challenges to Linguistic Secularism
- Hindi Imposition Fears: Periodic attempts to promote Hindi (e.g., in government signage, education) spark resistance, particularly in South India and Northeast, where regional languages dominate.
- Example: Recently, Maharashtra Government has revoked the government resolutions (GRs) on the three-language policy, introducing Hindi as the third language in primary schools.
- Dominance of English: English’s role as a global and link language creates a linguistic hierarchy, marginalizing non-English-speaking populations and limiting access to opportunities.
- Urban-rural divide: English proficiency is often limited to urban elites, undermining linguistic equity.
- Marginalization of Minor Languages: Non-scheduled languages and dialects face neglect in education, media, and governance, threatening linguistic diversity.
- Example: Languages like Tulu, Khasi, and Kokborok lack adequate institutional support.
- Regional Linguistic Chauvinism: Some states prioritize their regional language, marginalizing linguistic minorities within their borders (e.g., resistance to Hindi in Tamil Nadu or Marathi dominance in Maharashtra).
- Digital Divide: Limited digital content in regional languages restricts access to technology and information, particularly for speakers of minor languages.
Key Judicial Landmark Cases
- D.A.V. College v. State of Punjab (1971): The Supreme Court held that forcing a single language violated Article 29(1) and Article 30(1), as it infringed on the rights of linguistic minorities to conserve their language and administer educational institutions.
- T.M.A. Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka (2002): The Supreme Court upheld the right of linguistic minorities under Article 30(1) to establish and administer educational institutions, including the choice of medium of instruction, subject to reasonable regulations.
- English Medium Students Parents Association v. State of Karnataka (1994): The Supreme Court ruled that parents have the right to choose the medium of instruction for their children, and the state cannot impose a single language, citing Article 350A.
- Uttar Pradesh Official Language (Amendment) Act Case (2014): Supreme Court affirmed that Article 345 of the Indian Constitution allows a state legislature to adopt one or more languages in use in the state, in addition to Hindi, as official languages.
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Government Initiatives
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Promotes mother tongue-based education up to Class 5, ensuring linguistic inclusivity.
- Encourages multilingualism to bridge linguistic divides.
- Official Languages Act, 1963: Balances Hindi and English use in Union government, with provisions for regional languages in states.
- Cultural Institutions:
- Sahitya Akademi: Recognizes literary contributions in 24 languages, promoting linguistic diversity.
- Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL): Conducts research and training to develop Indian languages.
- Digital India and BharatNet: Promote digital content in regional languages, enhancing accessibility and inclusivity.
- Classical Language Status: Recognition of languages like Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), and others as classical languages to preserve linguistic heritage.
Case Studies of Language Agitation and Protectionism in India
- Anti-Hindi Agitations in Tamil Nadu (1937–1940, 1965): Protests against compulsory Hindi education and its imposition as the sole official language, led by Periyar (1930s) and DMK (1965).
- Outcome: Hindi mandate withdrawn (1940); English retained as an associate official language (1967).
- Reinforced Tamil Nadu’s two-language policy (Tamil + English) and Tamil cultural identity.
- Konkani Language Movement in Goa (1980s–1987): Agitation for Konkani’s recognition as Goa’s official language against Marathi dominance.
- Outcome: Konkani recognized as Goa’s official language (1987) and included in the Eighth Schedule (1992).
- Bodo Language Movement in Assam (1970s–2003): Demand for Bodo’s recognition as a distinct language against Assamese dominance.
- Outcome: Bodo included in the Eighth Schedule (2003) and recognized as an associate official language in Bodoland.
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Way Forward
- Strengthening Multilingual Education: Implement the three-language formula uniformly, ensuring flexibility to accommodate regional preferences.
- Develop curricula that include minor and endangered languages.
- Promoting Linguistic Inclusivity: Expand the Eighth Schedule to include languages like Bhojpuri, Tulu, and Khasi, ensuring equitable representation.
- Provide incentives for literature and media in non-scheduled languages.
- Addressing Hindi Imposition Concerns: Engage with non-Hindi-speaking states to ensure language policies are inclusive and consensual.
- Promote Hindi as a link language without undermining regional languages.
- Supporting Endangered Languages: Increase funding for SPPEL and similar schemes to document and revitalize minor languages.
- Encourage community-led initiatives to preserve oral traditions and dialects.
- Leveraging Technology: Develop AI-based translation tools and digital platforms for regional languages to bridge communication gaps.
- Expand digital literacy programs in local languages to reduce the digital divide.
- Fostering Cultural Exchange: Organize national-level linguistic festivals and programs to celebrate India’s linguistic diversity.
- Promote inter-state cultural exchanges to enhance mutual respect for languages.
Conclusion
India’s linguistic secularism is a cornerstone of its pluralistic identity, ensuring no language is privileged over others in governance, education, or culture. Despite challenges like regional resistance, English dominance, and marginalization of minor languages, constitutional provisions, policies, and institutions like CIIL and Sahitya Akademi uphold linguistic neutrality.
Additional Reading: Three Language Policy
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