Bengal was the first province to experience colonial rule, ushering in alterations to rural society, land rights, and a new revenue system. 

An Auction in Burdwan

Permanent Settlement: The year 1797 witnessed a prominent auction in Burdwan, following the introduction of the Permanent Settlement in 1793.

• Fixed Revenue: The Company designated a fixed revenue amount for each zamindar. Failure to pay led to the auctioning of their estates.
• Fictitious Auctions: Interestingly, over 95% of the auction sales were fictitious, with the Raja’s own agents and servants reclaiming the lands.
• Accumulation of Wealth: By the late nineteenth century many rich zamindars of Bengal had city palaces with ballrooms, large grounds, entrance porches supported by Corinthian columns like these.

The Problem of Unpaid Revenue

Impact of the Permanent Settlement: The ripple effect of the Permanent Settlement led to significant changes beyond Burdwan, with over 75% of the zamindars being auctioned.

• Role of Charles Cornwallis: Charles Cornwallis, renowned for his role in the American War of Independence, also played a pivotal role in India’s administrative landscape as the Governor General of Bengal, introducing the Permanent Settlement in 1793.
• Objective of the Permanent Settlement: The Permanent Settlement aimed to ensure consistent revenue for the British East India Company, thereby stimulating agricultural investments in the region.
• Reclassification of Zamindars: Zamindars, previously known as rajas and taluqdars, were reclassified under the Permanent Settlement and tasked with meeting fixed revenue obligations to the Company.
• Role of Zamindars: Zamindars served primarily as revenue collectors for the state, overseeing multiple villages and collecting rent, remitting the Company’s portion, and retaining the remainder for themselves.

Reasons for Defaulted Payments by Zamindars

High Revenue Demands: The Company imposed high initial revenue demands on zamindars, which contributed to their difficulty in meeting stipulated obligations.

• Economic Slump of the 1790s:The economic downturn of the 1790s impacted agricultural commodity prices, making it challenging for ryots to settle their dues and further complicating the revenue collection process.
• Strict Revenue Payment Deadline: The Sunset Law emphasized a strict deadline for revenue payments, adding pressure on zamindars to meet their obligations promptly.
• Limitations on Zamindars: Zamindars faced limitations on rent collection and estate governance, restricting their traditional prerogatives as the Company sought to recognize and curtail their power.
• Perennial Rent Collection Issues: Rent collection emerged as a perennial issue for zamindars, influenced by factors such as fluctuating harvest yields, market rates, and resistance from affluent ryots and village leaders.
• Tedious Legal Channels: Legal channels for addressing defaults in revenue payment were tedious, resulting in a multitude of unresolved cases and further complicating the revenue collection process.

The Rise of the Jotedars

Emergence in Villages: In the backdrop of the eighteenth-century zamindar crisis, jotedars, or rich peasants, began consolidating power in villages. 

• Region: The Dinajpur district in North Bengal became a notable hotspot for this class.
• Houses: Jotedars and moneylenders in rural Bengal often resided in opulent houses, as depicted in some of Chinnery’s works.
• Land Ownership and Influence: By the nineteenth century, jotedars controlled vast tracts, sometimes thousands of acres. 
• • Domination: They dominated not only agriculture but also local trade and moneylending.
• Cultivation Practices: Most of their land was tilled by sharecroppers, known as adhiyars or bargadars.
  • Sharing: Sharecroppers provided their labour and tools and shared half the yield with jotedars.
• Power Dynamics: Jotedars wielded more effective power in villages than distant urban-based zamindars. 
  • Resistance: They actively resisted zamindari influence, delayed revenue payments, and even bought out zamindari lands at auctions.

The Resistance of Zamindars

Tactics for Survival: Facing high revenue demands, zamindars devised strategies like fictitious sales to retain control. 

• Example: The Raja of Burdwan used a series of manoeuvres to counter the British Company’s revenue demands.
• Evolution of Burdwan’s Leadership: When the Permanent Settlement came into effect, Tejchand served as the Raja of Burdwan. 
  • Successor: His successor, Mehtab Chand, ushered in a period of prosperity for the estate. 
  • Alignment: Notably, Mehtab Chand aligned with the British during significant events like the Santhal rebellion and the 1857 revolt.
• Fictitious Sales Explained: The zamindar would manipulate auction processes, often buying back their own lands at reduced prices. 
  • Amount: Between 1793 and 1801, such activities amounted to a massive Rs. 30 lakh.
• Resistance to Outsiders: New buyers of auctioned estates often faced aggression from the previous zamindar’s forces or even loyal ryots. 
  • Complications: Loyalty to the traditional zamindar system persisted among villagers, complicating the land sale process.
• The Beginning of the 19th Century: As price depression ended and revenue payment rules became flexible, zamindari power strengthened. 
  • However, the Great Depression of the 1930s marked a decline in their power, with jotedars becoming dominant.

The Fifth Report and its Implications

Documentation: The Fifth Report, submitted to the British Parliament in 1813, meticulously documented the operations and activities of the East India Company in India.

• Composition: It comprised 1002 pages, with over 800 pages dedicated to appendices, including petitions, district collector reports, revenue statistics, and administrative notes on Bengal and Madras.
• Importance: Produced by a Select Committee, this report significantly influenced parliamentary debates about the nature of the Company’s rule in India.

Backdrop of the Company’s Rule in Bengal

Scrutiny in England: Since the Company took control of Bengal in the mid-1760s, its actions were heavily scrutinised and debated in England.

• Opposition in Britain:
  • Numerous factions in Britain contested the East India Company’s monopoly over trade with India and China.
  • Private traders aspired for a share in the India trade, while British industrialists wanted access to the Indian market.
  • National Benefit Concern: Political groups felt the conquest of Bengal mainly benefited the Company, sidelining the larger British nation.
• Regulations and Oversight:
  • Publicising Misdeeds: Incidents highlighting the Company’s mismanagement, greed, and corruption were regularly reported in the media.
  • Parliamentary Interventions: To regulate the Company, the British Parliament passed multiple Acts in the late 18th century.
  • Mandatory Reports: The Company was mandated to regularly submit reports about its Indian administration.
  • Depiction in Popular Culture: Satyajit Ray’s film, “Jalshaghar,” which showcases the decline of the aristocratic zamindari lifestyle, was filmed in Andul Raj Palace. 
• Analysing the Report:
  • Significance: The Fifth Report, for over 150 years, has shaped perceptions of events in rural Bengal during the late 18th century.
  • Reading with Caution: While the evidence in the Fifth Report is invaluable, it’s essential to approach it critically. Understanding the authors and their motivations is crucial.
  • Recent Research Critiques: Newer studies suggest that the report might have exaggerated the decline of traditional zamindari power and overemphasised the scale of land loss by zamindars.
  • Reality of Zamindari Displacements: Contrary to the report’s claims, many zamindars managed to retain their lands and power, even when their properties were auctioned.

Conclusion

Multifacet Impact: The impacts of British colonial rule are evident in the shifts in cultivation practices, imposition of forest laws, trade exploitations, and the rise of revolts. 

• Wider Implications: This exploration not only underlines the vulnerabilities faced by the tribals but also celebrates their strength, unity, and indomitable spirit in the face of adversity. 

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