In February 1922, Gandhi halted the Non-Cooperation Movement, alarmed by its escalating violence. Within Congress, a division emerged, Swaraj Party advocated council participation, led by Das and Motilal Nehru; younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pushed for radical mass agitation and complete independence.

Factors Paved the Way Towards  Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM)

Amidst internal discord, Indian politics in the late 1920s was shaped by two significant factors. 

• Global Economic Depression: It hits hard. Agricultural prices plummeted from 1926, collapsing after 1930. 
  • Reduced demand and declining exports left peasants struggling to sell their harvests and pay their revenue, leading to widespread turmoil in countryside.
• Simon Commission: In response to nationalist movement, new Tory government in Britain established a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon to delve into India’s constitutional system and propose reforms. 
  • The contentious issue is that the commission was composed solely of British members, raising concerns about its ability to accurately represent Indian perspectives.
• Nationalist Opposition: In 1928, arrival of Simon Commission triggered nationwide protests with the slogan ‘Go back, Simon,’ uniting parties like Congress and Muslim League. 
• Demand for Independence: Despite Lord Irwin’s vague offer of ‘dominion status‘ and a Round Table Conference in 1929, led by Nehru and Bose, Congress formalized demand for ‘Purna Swaraj‘ or full independence at 1929 Lahore Congress under Nehru’s presidency. 
  • However, this abstract idea of freedom needed a more tangible connection to everyday life, leading Gandhi to strategize further.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi Eleven Demands: In January 1930, Gandhi, recognizing salt’s universal importance, presented eleven demands to Viceroy Irwin. 

• These demands spanned various classes, aiming for broad unity. 
• The most powerful demand was the abolition of the salt tax, symbolizing British oppression.
• Gandhi Ultimatum about CDM: Gandhi issued an ultimatum that fulfil his demands by 11 March, or face civil disobedience. 
• • Unyielding, he commenced the famous 240-mile salt march from Sabarmati to Dandi, rallying thousands with his message of peaceful defiance against the British. (Refer Figure 8.19)
• Launch of CDM: CDM, a departure from Non-Cooperation, encouraged law-breaking. People not only boycotted the British but also violated colonial laws. 
  • Nationwide, they breached salt laws, boycotted foreign cloth, picketed liquor shops, and protested unjust taxes. 
  • Peasants resisted revenue payments, officials resigned, and forest communities challenged forest laws.

• Government Repression: Arrest of Congress leaders caused unrest. Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s arrest incited violence in Peshawar, while Gandhi’s arrest led to attacks in Sholapur. 
  • In response, Britishers ruthlessly suppressed the movement, attacking peaceful protesters, including women and children, and arresting approximately 100,000 people.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact: In 1931, Gandhi’s decision to halt the movement through Gandhi-Irwin Pact marked a significant turn.
  • His participation in Round Table Conference in London was a beacon of hope, but negotiations failed. 
  • This setback led to renewed repression in India. 
  • Gandhi’s subsequent relaunch of CDM echoed his unwavering commitment, though it gradually waned by 1934.

How Participants Saw the Movement

Peasants: In the countryside, prosperous peasant groups such as Patidars of Gujrat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh actively backed CDM, driven by economic woes caused by trade depression and falling crop prices.

• The government’s steadfastness on revenue demands sparked widespread resentment. 
• Disappointment followed 1931 cessation without revenue revisions, causing many to abstain when the movement resumed in 1932.

• Small Tenants: Impacted by Depression, small tenants faced challenges paying rent and sought remittance. 
  • Joining radical movements led by Socialists and Communists, their demand for support clashed with the Congress’ hesitancy in backing ‘no rent’ campaigns, resulting in an uncertain relationship between poor peasants and the party.
• Indian merchants and industrialists: In World War I, Indian merchants and industrialists reaped profits and rebelled against colonial restrictions. 
  • Forming bodies like the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress and FICCI, they initially backed CDM. 
  • However, post Round Table Conference, concerns arose about militant activities, business disruptions, and rising socialist influence in Congress, dimming their enthusiasm.
• Industrial Workers and Congress: In Civil Disobedience Movement, industrial workers, except those in Nagpur, kept their distance from Congress. 
  • Some, however, integrated Gandhian principles in protests against low wages and poor conditions. 
  • Despite worker strikes, Congress refrained from incorporating labour demands, fearing division among anti-imperial forces.
• Women’s Participation: In CDM, women played a significant role, participating actively in marches and picketing. 
  • Despite their involvement, traditional gender roles were upheld, with Gandhiji emphasizing women’s domestic duties. 
  • Congress, too, limited women’s authority, valuing their symbolic presence within the organization. (Refer to  Figure 8.21)

Limits of Civil Disobedience

Limited Dalit Representation: Despite Gandhi’s anti-untouchability efforts, Dalit leaders pursued political solutions, advocating for reserved seats and separate electorates. 

• Their limited participation in CDM, especially in regions like Maharashtra and Nagpur, underscored their emphasis on political empowerment.
• Gandhi-Ambedkar Pact: In 1930, Ambedkar’s Depressed Classes Association clashed with Gandhi at the Round Table Conference, demanding separate Dalit electorates. 
• • Gandhi’s fast against this led to compromise. 
  • The Poona Pact 1932 reserved seats for Scheduled Castes in legislative councils, easing tensions in Dalit movement.
• Widening Hindu-Muslim Divide: Following the decline of Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, many Muslims became estranged from Congress. 
  • The alignment of Congress with Hindu nationalist groups heightened religious tensions, leading to clashes and riots, intensifying rift between Hindus and Muslims.
• Failed Attempts at Hindu-Muslim Unity: In 1927, Congress and Muslim League engaged in negotiations aiming for alliance. 
  • Disagreements arose concerning assembly representation. 
  • Jinnah proposed reserved seats in the Central Assembly and proportionate representation in Muslim-dominated provinces. Unfortunately, these efforts were hindered due to the staunch opposition from Hindu Mahasabha.
• Erosion of Hindu-Muslim Trust: Amidst CDM suspicion marred community relations. 
  • Disconnected from Congress, numerous Muslims refrained from the struggle, fearing their minority status in India. Concerns arose about cultural preservation under Hindu majority rule.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

The sense of collective belonging didn’t solely emerge from shared struggles; it was profoundly influenced by various cultural facets. Historical narratives, fictional accounts, folklore, music, and symbols all played pivotal roles in shaping the nation’s identity.

• Visual Embodiment of Nation: Concept of Bharat Mata, visualized during Swadeshi movement, evolved into a multifaceted representation of India’s spirit. 
  • Initially conceived by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, it transformed into a serene, divine figure, reflecting the nation’s ethos. 
  • This concept gained momentum as various artists interpreted it in their unique ways, leading to a rich tapestry of national identity. (Refer to  Figure 8.24)
• Rediscovering India’s Glorious Cultural Past: In late 19th century, a fervent movement to revive Indian folklore emerged among nationalists. 
  • Their objective was to document authentic folk tales, songs, and legends, considering these narratives as uncorrupted remnants of the nation’s cultural heritage. 
  • Preservation of these traditions was deemed crucial for reclaiming national identity and instilling a sense of historical pride.
  •  Notable figures such as Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal and Natesa Sastri in Madras played pivotal roles in this cultural resurgence.
• Symbols of National Unity: As the national movement gained momentum, leaders realized power of unifying symbols. 
  • In Bengal’s Swadeshi movement, a tricolor flag with lotuses and a crescent moon was designed. 
  • By 1921, Gandhiji created Swaraj flag, representing self-help. 
  • Simultaneously, reinterpreting history highlighted India’s achievements but occasionally alienated other communities.

Quite India 

Reason: The failure of the Cripps Mission and the widespread discontentment in India caused by World War II led Gandhi to initiate a movement, urging for the complete withdrawal of the British from India.

• Quit India Resolution: Congress Working Committee during its meeting in Wardha on July 14, 1942, passed the historic ‘Quit India‘ resolution, unequivocally demanding immediate transfer of power to Indians and the British departure from India.

• • Call to Action: In Bombay on August 8, 1942, All India Congress Committee unanimously endorsed a resolution for a non-violent mass struggle across the nation. 
  • It was during this historic event that Gandhiji delivered his renowned ‘Do or Die’ speech.
• Manifestation and Impact: ‘Quit India‘ call led to significant disruptions in state machinery nationwide. 
  • People passionately engaged in the movement, participating in hartals, demonstrations, and processions, all echoing national songs and slogans.
• Mass Participation and Suppression: This truly mass movement drew in thousands of ordinary people, students, workers, and peasants alike. 
  • Leaders such as Jayprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Ram Manohar Lohia actively participated. 
  • Notable women like Matangini Hazra in Bengal, Kanaklata Barua in Assam, and Rama Devi in Odisha lent their courage.
  •  Despite the British’s forceful response, suppressing this remarkable movement took over a year. (Refer to Figure 8.25)

Conclusion

During the first half of the 20th century, India experienced a surge of collective anger against colonial rule, uniting various groups and classes. Gandhi, at helm of Congress, orchestrated a series of meticulously planned movements for independence. These efforts aimed not only to challenge the colonial government but also to foster a sense of national unity. Despite occasional discord, Congress continuously worked to reconcile diverse aspirations, emphasizing the nation’s shared quest for freedom.

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