Globalization is a relatively new term, but the process of people, goods, and ideas interacting across borders is centuries old. Thus, all through history, human societies have become steadily more interlinked. Globalization is an economic system that has emerged over the past 50 years, shaped by trade, conquest, and world war. It has changed the global economy, affecting people and societies around the world.

The Pre-modern World

 The global world has a long history – of trade, of migration, of people in search of work,  movement of capital. 

• Human Migration and Cultural Exchange: Throughout history, people have traveled long distances for knowledge, opportunity, and spiritual fulfillment. 
  • These travelers have carried goods, money, values, skills, ideas, inventions, and sometimes even diseases with them.
• Ancient Trade Routes: As early as 3000 BCE, there was an active coastal trade of  Indus Valley civilizations with West Asia. For more than a millennia, cowries from Maldives were used in trade with China and East Africa. 
  • The long-distance spread of disease-carrying germs may be traced as far back as the seventh century.

 Silk Route: A Link to the World

About: Silk Roads comprised an extensive system of trade pathways connecting Asia to Europe and North Africa. It has been in existence since well before Christian Era and remained vibrant until nearly the fifteenth century.

•  They serve as an important example of dynamic pre-modern trade and cultural connections among distant regions of the world. 
• The term ‘silk routes’ specifically refers to the westward movement of Chinese silk shipments along this network.
• Trade: The route facilitated the export of Chinese pottery, textiles, and spices from India and Southeast Asia, while it saw the flow of precious metals like gold and silver from Europe to Asia.
• Cultural Exchange: Christian missionaries and Muslim preachers ventured along Silk Roads to propagate their respective religions.
  •  Before this, Buddhism had disseminated along these routes from eastern India to various other parts of Asia.

Food Travels

Food is a testament to exchange of ideas and ingredients across cultures over long distances. Traders and travelers introduced new crops to the lands they visited, which were often adopted by the local people.

• Noodles originated in China and traveled west to become spaghetti. 
• Arab traders introduced pasta to fifth-century Sicily, an island now in Italy. 
• Potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chilies, and sweet potatoes, these foods were only introduced in Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus discovered America.

Conquest, Disease and Trade

Age of Exploration and Discovery: In the 16th century, European sailors discovered new sea routes to Asia and America. 

• This led to a surge in trade and exploration, and discovery of new resources and crops.
• Importance of America: The discovery of America, in particular, had a profound impact on global economy.
• • Precious metals such as silver from American mines flooded into Europe, boosting its wealth and financing its trade with Asia. 
• European conquest was not just a result of superior firepower but Smallpox disease.
  • Smallpox proved a deadly killer for Americans as they were not immune. 
  • Once introduced, it spread deep into the continent, paving the way for conquest of America.
• Great Migration: Europeans fled to America in the 18th century due to poverty, hunger, disease, religious conflicts, and persecution. 
  • They established cotton and sugar plantations to serve European markets.
• Shifting Economic Power: China and India were the richest countries in the world until the 18th century, and they dominated Asian trade. 
  • However, China’s isolation in the 15th century and the rise of the Americas shifted the center of world trade to Europe.

The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

The 19th century was a time of great change, with economic, political, social, cultural, and technological factors transforming societies and reshaping international relations. Economists identify three types of movement or ‘flows’ within international economic exchanges:

• The flow of trade: largely to trade in goods;
• The flow of labour: the migration of people in search of employment;
• The flow of capital: for short-term or long-term investments over long distances.

World Economy Changed 

Before the 19th century, countries tried to be self-sufficient in food. But the Industrial Revolution in Europe changed the way food was produced and consumed. The population of Britain increased in the late 18th century, which led to a higher demand for food. This, along with the growth of urban centers and industry, pushed up food prices.

• Import of Food by Britain: Britain imported food because it was cheaper than producing it domestically. This led to widespread unemployment and migration to cities and overseas. 
  • To meet Britain’s growing demand for food, land was cleared and food production expanded around the world, including in Eastern Europe, Russia, America, and Australia.
• Capital Flow: Capital from financial hubs such as London was directed towards constructing railways that linked rural areas to ports, in addition to developing new ports, houses, and communities.
• Labour Flow: During 19th century, around 50 million individuals migrated from Europe to America and Australia. Around globe, approximately 150 million individuals departed from their residences, crossed seas, and journeyed extensive distances across terrain, all in pursuit of an improved livelihood. 
  • By 1890, a worldwide agricultural economy had developed, characterized by the following aspects:
    • Shifts in labor movement trends, capital flows, ecosystems, and technology.
    • Food now originated from thousands of miles away, rather than from a nearby village or town.
    • Food was cultivated not by a farmer working his soil but by a farm laborer.
    • Food was moved using trains that were specifically constructed for this task, and also by ships that were increasingly staffed by cheap labor from southern Europe, Asia, Africa, and  Caribbean during that period.
• The Canal Colonies: British Indian government built a network of irrigation canals to transform semi-desert wastes into fertile agricultural lands that could grow wheat and cotton for export. 
  • These areas irrigated by the new canals called the Canal Colonies, were settled by peasants from other parts of Punjab.
• Boost in World Trade: Between 1820 and 1914, world trade increased by 25 to 40 times, mainly due to the growth of regional specialization in production of commodities. 
  • Nearly 60% of trade was in “primary products,” such as agricultural goods like wheat and cotton, and minerals like coal.

Role of Technology: Shaping the 19th Century World

Pioneer Technologies: The railways, steamships, and the telegraph transformed the nineteenth-century world.

• New Investments and Improvements in Transport faster railways, lighter wagons, and larger ships helped move food more cheaply and quickly from faraway farms to final markets. 
  • Ex: Before the 1870s, meat was a luxury for Europeans because it had to be shipped live from America and slaughtered when it arrived. This was expensive and the meat was often not of good quality. 
  • Invention of refrigerated ships made it possible to transport meat long distances without it spoiling. 
  • This reduced the cost of meat and made it more accessible to ordinary Europeans. 
• Improved living standards led to social peace and support for imperialism abroad.

Late-Nineteenth-Century Colonialism

Colonial Expansion: During the late 1800s, European nations increased their territories by colonizing various regions in Africa and Asia. 

• This resulted in a rise in trade and economic development, albeit at the cost of colonized individuals experiencing a loss of freedom and means of living.
• Scramble for Africa: In 1885,  main European countries gathered in Berlin to partition Africa among themselves. 
• • In the late 19th century, Britain and France grew their empires extensively, as Belgium and Germany emerged as new colonial forces. 
  • In the late 1890s, the United States also gained control of several colonies previously held by Spain, becoming a colonial power.
• Impact of colonialism: 
  • The Cattle Plague: During the late 19th century, Europeans arrived in Africa to set up farms and mines, however, they faced a scarcity of workers due to Cattle Plague. 
  • Rinderpest, a lethal disease affecting cattle, made its way to Africa in the late 1880s, leading to the death of 90% of livestock and devastating African communities. 
    • The reduction in livestock increased control of European settlers and pushed Africans into the workforce.
    • Employers utilized various strategies to attract and keep workers, including implementing high taxes that could only be covered through wage labor.
    • It had a devastating effect on the residents’ incomes and the community’s economic situation.

Indentured Labour Migration from India (New System of Slavery)

Forced Labor and Human Trafficking: During the 19th century, numerous Indian and Chinese workers were hired to labor on plantations, in mines, and road and railway development projects globally. 

• They were frequently enticed with deceitful commitments and compelled to labor in severe surroundings.
• Cultural Fusion: Indentured workers in the Caribbean mixed cultural elements from their countries of origin and new residences to produce fresh modes of expression, like Hosay, Rastafarianism, and Chutney music. 
• • These mixtures of cultures are a reflection of an interconnected global community, in which diverse elements merge and progress.
• In the 1900s, Indian nationalist leaders opposed the indentured labor migration system as abusive and cruel. It was abolished in 1921.

Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad

Indian bankers(the Shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars) and traders played a vital role in financing export agriculture and trade in Central and Southeast Asia, Africa, and beyond. 

• They used their funds or borrowed from European banks to provide capital to farmers and traders. 
• They also developed sophisticated systems for transferring money over long distances and creating corporate organizations.
• Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European colonists into Africa.
  • Hyderabadi Sindhi traders ventured beyond European colonies.

Indian Trade and Colonialism

Decline of Indian Textile Industry: British industrialization and tariff barriers led to a decline in Indian cotton textile exports and an increase in raw material exports. ( raw cotton, Indigo, opium)

• Britain’s trade surplus in India helped balance its trade deficits with other countries and pay its home charges. 
  • Home charges included private remittances home by British officials and traders, interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions of British officials in India.

Conclusion

Globalization manifests through trade, migration, and cultural exchange. Ancient routes like the Silk Road facilitated economic and cultural interactions. The 19th century, marked by technological advancements and colonial expansions, transformed global economies and societies. This era saw significant shifts in labour, capital, and trade flows, influencing global food production and migration patterns. Despite its benefits, globalization often comes at the cost of local economies and communities.

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