From the eighteenth century, more areas of South America, Central America, North America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand came to be settled by immigrants from Europe. This led to many of the native peoples being pushed out into other areas. The European settlements were called ‘colonies’. When the European inhabitants of the colonies became independent of the European ‘mother-country’, these colonies became ‘states’ or countries

• During the 19th and 20th centuries, individuals from Asian countries also migrated to some of these nations. 

Migration and Marginalization of Natives

Demographic Transformation: Today, individuals of European and Asian descent constitute the majority in these countries, while the native populations have dwindled significantly. 

• Urban Invisibility: Many native communities are scarcely visible in urban areas, and the historical presence of these indigenous people, as reflected in the names of rivers, towns, and other places, is often forgotten.
• Colonial Narratives: Until the mid-20th century, American and Australian history textbooks typically portrayed Europeans as “discovering” the Americas and Australia, with minimal acknowledgment of native peoples except to depict them as hostile to Europeans. 

The Evolution of Indigenous Studies

Foundations of Indigenous Anthropology: The study of indigenous peoples was initiated by anthropologists in America during the 1840s. 

• Later, from the 1960s, efforts were made to encourage native peoples to document their own histories through oral history practices.
• Empowered Narratives: In contemporary times, it is possible to access historical literature and fiction produced by indigenous peoples. 
• Museums and Native Art: Museums in these countries showcase galleries of “native art” and special exhibitions detailing indigenous ways of life. 
• For example, the National Museum of the American Indian in the United States has been curated by American Indians themselves, reflecting a growing recognition of indigenous perspectives and histories.

European Imperialism

Shifting Imperial Tides: During the 17th century, the American empires of Spain and Portugal ceased to expand. 

• Subsequently, other European powers such as France, the Netherlands, and England initiated extensive colonial ventures in regions including the Americas, Africa, and Asia. 
• Ireland, in particular, was effectively a colony of England, primarily settled by English landowners.
• Settler Identities: The term “settler” applies to the Dutch in South Africa, the British in Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, as well as the European settlers in America.
• Colonial Pursuits: In the 18th century, it became apparent that while the pursuit of profit was a driving force behind colonial endeavors, there were marked differences in the methods of control employed. 
• Colonisation of South Asia: , trading companies like the East India Company evolved into political powers. 
  • They overcame local rulers, annexed their territories, and retained existing administrative systems while collecting taxes from landowners. 
  • East India Company  invested in infrastructure, constructing railways, mining operations, and large plantations.
• Colonisation of  Africa: European trade was initially limited to coastal regions, except for South Africa. 
  • It wasn’t until the late 19th century that Europeans ventured into the continent’s interior. 
  • Following this, European powers reached agreements to partition Africa into colonies for themselves.
• Linguistic Dominance: English was the official language in these colonies, with the exception of Canada, where both English and French held official status.

Conclusion

The displacement of indigenous peoples through European colonization transformed diverse lands into colonies and later nation-states. The marginalization of native communities, paired with shifting imperial ambitions and settler identities, shaped modern nation-states while indigenous voices are increasingly recognized in historical studies and museums.

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