India had a very rich and old tradition of manuscripts – in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages. Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after introduction of print, down to the late nineteenth century.

Manuscript Culture in India

 Limited Access: Manuscripts were highly expensive and not widely used.

•  Oral Tradition in Education: Even though pre-colonial Bengal had developed an extensive network of village primary schools, students very often did not read texts. 
  • They only learned to write. Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down.

The Development of the Indian Press 

Origin in India: The printing press was introduced to India by Portuguese missionaries in the 16th century.

• Missionary Press: Catholic and Protestant missionaries printed books in various Indian languages.
  • Jesuit priests learned Konkani and printed several tracts. 
  • By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in  Konkani and Kanara languages. 
  • Catholic priests printed  first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the  Malayalam book was printed by them
• English Press: The first English-language newspaper in India was the Bengal Gazette, which was edited by James Augustus Hickey.
  • The English language press did not grow in India until the late 18th century.
  • Hickey’s newspaper was critical of the British East India Company, which led to his persecution by Governor-General Warren Hastings.
• Growth of Indian Language Press: By end of 18th century, several newspapers and journals were being published in India, including some by Indians (Bengal Gazette, weekly brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya).

The Role of Print in Religious Reform

Religious Discourse: Print culture had a profound impact on religious discourse in India in the early 19th century.

• Democratization of Religious Debate: Print allowed for a wider public to participate in debates about religious issues, and led to the emergence of new ideas and interpretations of religious beliefs.
  • Both Hindu and Muslim reformers used print to spread their ideas.
• Key Publications: Some of newspapers and tracts that were published during this time included the Sambad Kaumudi (1821, Rammohan Roy), the Samachar Chandrika (1822, Bhabani Charan Bandyopadhyay), and  Jam-i-Jahan Nama, Shamsul Akhbar (1822, Persian newspapers), and  Bombay Samachar (Gujarati newspaper).
• Vernacularization of Religious Texts: Print also encouraged reading of religious texts in vernacular languages, making them more accessible to a wider range of people and leading to a growth in religious discussions and debates.

Figure 2: Raja Ritudhwaj by Raja Ravi Verma, Raja Ravi Varma produced innumerable mythological paintings that were printed at the Ravi Varma Press.

• Catalyst for National Identity: In addition to stimulating publication of conflicting opinions, print also connected communities and people in different parts of India, creating pan-Indian identities.

The Impact of Print on Indian Literature and Art

New Literary Forms: Printing press created a demand for new kinds of writing, such as novels, short stories, essays, and lyrics. 

• These new forms of literature reflected lives, experiences, and emotions of ordinary people, and helped to shape popular ideas about modernity, tradition, religion, politics, and society.
• Visual Culture: Printing press also made it possible to reproduce visual images in multiple copies, which led to development of a new visual culture. 
• Prints and Calendars: Cheap prints and calendars depicting religious, political, and social themes became popular in the bazaars.                     
• Caricatures and cartoons were published in journals and newspapers, commenting on social and political issues.      

The Impact of Print on Women’s Lives in India

Increase in Female Literacy: In late 19th and early 20th centuries, more and more women in India were learning to read. 

• This was due in part to social reforms and the rise of women’s education.
• Women’s Writing: As more women became literate, there was a growing demand for women’s writing. 
• • Women’s magazines and novels became popular, and women began to write about their own experiences, including challenges they faced in a Patriarchal Society.
  • Some women writers, such as Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai, wrote with passion and anger about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows.
• Female Autobiography: Rashsundari Debi, a young married woman in an orthodox household, learned to read in the secrecy of her kitchen and later wrote her autobiography (Amar Jiban), which was the first full-length autobiography published in Bengali.
• Reinforcing Patriarchy: Other women writers, such as Ram Chaddha, wrote about Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient to their husbands.
• Catalyst for Change: Women’s writing helped to raise awareness of the challenges faced by women in Indian society and to promote social change.

Print Culture and the Emergence of New Social Movements in India

Mass Accessibility: Cheap books were sold at crossroads in Madras towns in the 19th century, making them accessible to poor people.

• Public libraries were set up in the early 20th century, expanding access to books, mostly in cities and towns.
• Printed tracts and essays on caste discrimination began to appear in the late 19th century. 
  • For example, Jyotiba Phule wrote about injustices of the caste system in his book Gulamgiri (1871). 
  • In the 20th century, B.R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) wrote powerfully on caste, and their writings were widely read.
•  Protest and Vision: Local protest movements also produced popular journals and tracts criticizing ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future.
  • Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked education to write much about their experiences, but some, such as Kashibaba ( Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938) and Sudarshan Chakr (Sacchi Kavitayan), did write about the links between caste and class exploitation.
• Workers Self Empowerment: By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves, following the example of Bombay workers. 
  • These libraries were sponsored by social reformers who tried to restrict excessive drinking among them, to bring literacy, and sometimes to propagate the message of nationalism.

Press Censorship in British India

Objective: The British East India Company was not initially concerned with censorship, but began to control the press in the 1820s to suppress criticism.

• Means: After the 1857 revolt, the colonial government passed the Vernacular Press Act to censor vernacular newspapers.

• Growth of Nationalist Press: Despite this, nationalist newspapers grew in number and encouraged nationalist activities.
  • Colonial government tried to control the press in India, but nationalist newspapers continued to grow. 
• Nationalist Press Agenda: They reported on colonial misgovernance and encouraged nationalist activities. This led to a cycle of persecution and protests. 
  • Ex: when Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with sympathy about Punjab revolutionaries in his newspaper, he was imprisoned, provoking widespread protests all over India.

Conclusion

Both industrialization and print have significantly influenced human society. The growth of cities, emergence of a working class, and the advancement of new technologies were all outcomes of industrialization. Printing technology facilitated the expansion of reading and writing skills, as well as the promotion of religious and social change, the sharing of thoughts, and the emergence of fresh types of media like newspapers and magazines.

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