After the signing of the Constitution by Louis XVI, tensions persisted in France. Louis XVI secretly communicated with the King of Prussia, raising concerns among neighboring countries. In anticipation of potential foreign intervention, the National Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria in April 1792.

Developments Towards End of Monarchy  

Patriotism and Birth of Anthem: Numerous volunteers from provinces joined the French army, viewing the conflict as a battle against European monarchies.

• • The Marseillaise, composed by Roget de L’Isle and sung by Marseilles’ volunteers, became the national anthem of France.
• Impact of the Revolutionary Wars: Wars led to losses and economic strains, with men at war, and women shouldered responsibilities at home and work.
  • Many believed the revolution was incomplete as the Constitution of 1791 favored the affluent.
• Political Clubs and the Rise of the Jacobins: Political clubs became platforms to discuss and plan actions, Jacobins, named after the former convent of St Jacob, emerged as a prominent club.
  • Jacobin members came from the working class, with Maximilian Robespierre as their leader.
  • Symbolizing their distinct identity, Jacobins wore long striped trousers, leading to the moniker “sans-culottes” (those without knee breeches).
  • Red caps symbolized liberty for sans-culottes men, but women were excluded from this.
• Insurrection and End of Monarchy: In Summer of 1792, angered Parisians, led by Jacobins, attacked the Palace of Tuileries, and imprisoned the royal family.
  • Subsequent elections granted voting rights to all men above 21, irrespective of wealth.
  • The Convention, the newly elected assembly, abolished monarchy on 21 September 1792, proclaiming France a republic.
• Execution of the Royals: Louis XVI was charged with treason and publicly executed on 21 January 1793 at the Place de la Concorde.
  • Queen Marie Antoinette faced a similar fate shortly thereafter.
• Reign of Terror (1793-1794): In this phase, Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. 
  • All those whom he saw as being enemies of the republic such as ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, and even members of his party who did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned, and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal.  
    • If the court found them guilty they were guillotined. 

• Robespierre’s Downfall: Due to his unyielding policies, even his supporters started to call for moderation.
  • In July 1794, Robespierre was convicted, arrested, and subsequently executed via the guillotine.

A Directory Rules France

Shift in Authority: Following the fall of the Jacobin government, wealthier middle classes took reins of power in France. 

• • They introduced a new constitution, which notably excluded non-propertied citizens from the right to vote. 
  • This constitution established two elected legislative councils, which in turn appointed a five-member executive body known as the Directory. 
• Challenge to Concentration Power: This system was meant to prevent concentration of power in the hands of a single executive, a challenge seen during the Jacobin era. 

Conclusion  

This period of political instability and conflicts that arose between Directory and legislative councils eventually paved the way for rise of a formidable military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte. Despite these tumultuous changes in governance, the ideals of freedom, equality before the law, and fraternity remained intact. These principles continued to inspire and drive political movements across France and the rest of Europe in the century that followed.

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