In 1962, Chinese invasion of India marked a critical turning point in South Asian geopolitics. The conflict stemmed from long-standing territorial disputes, annexation of Tibet by China, and the Dalai Lama’s asylum in India. This event not only altered India’s national security landscape but also strained international relations, leading India to seek assistance from the US and Britain. The aftermath of the war profoundly influenced India’s foreign policy and internal politics, setting the stage for future conflicts and shaping its nuclear strategy.

The Chinese Invasion of 1962

Responsible Factors: Two developments strained this relationship:

• China annexed Tibet in 1950 and thus removed a historical buffer between the two countries. 
• Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959. 
• China alleged that the government of India was allowing anti-China activities to take place from within India.
• China claimed two areas within the Indian territory: 
  • Aksai-chin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and 
  • Much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was then called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency).

• Course of War: China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both disputed regions. 
  • Initial Strike by China: First attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured some key areas in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • India’s Stalemate and China’s Eastern Push: Second wave of attacks came next month. 
    • While Indian forces could block Chinese advances on western front in Ladakh, in east Chinese managed to advance nearly to the entry point of Assam plains. 
  • China’s Unilateral Withdrawal: Finally, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they were before invasion began. 
• Consequences of War: The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad. India had to approach America and British for military assistance to tide over crisis.
  • Soviet Neutrality: Soviet Union remained neutral during conflict. It induced a sense of national humiliation and at same time strengthened a spirit of nationalism.
  • Sino-Indian Conflict and the CPI Split: Sino-Indian conflict affected opposition as well, Communist Party of India (CPI). 
    • The pro-USSR faction remained within CPI and moved towards closer ties with Congress. 
    • The other faction was for some time closer to China and was against any ties with Congress. 
  • Emergence of the CPI(M): The party split in 1964 and leaders of the latter faction formed Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M).
  • Northeast Security Concern: The war with China alerted Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast region.

Wars and Peace with Pakistan

Conflict Erupts in Kashmir: A proxy war broke out between Indian and Pakistani armies in Kashmir in 1947. The issue was then referred to the UN. 

• Resolving Water Disputes: A long-term dispute about sharing of river waters was resolved through mediation by the World Bank. 
  • The India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.
• Pakistan’s Attacks, 1965: In April 1965 Pakistan launched armed attacks in Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat. 
  • This was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August-September.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Prime Minister of India, ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive on Punjab border. 
  • In a fierce battle, the Indian army reached close to Lahore.
• Tashkent Agreement (1966): The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention. Later, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.

Bangladesh War, 1971

Pakistan’s 1970 Elections: In 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis. 

• Country’s first general election produced a split verdict – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party emerged a winner in West Pakistan, while Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman swept through East Pakistan.
• Rejection of Electoral Outcome: Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept democratic verdicts. Nor were they ready to accept Awami League’s demand for a federation.
• Brutal Crackdown: Instead, in early 1971, Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of terror on people of East Pakistan. 
  • In response to this, the people started a struggle to liberate ‘Bangladesh’ from Pakistan. 
• Refugee Crisis: Throughout 1971, India had to bear burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan and took shelter in the neighboring areas in India.
  • Pakistan accused India of a conspiracy to break it up.
  • Support for Pakistan came from the US and China.
• India Secures Soviet Support: To counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971. 
  • This treaty assured India of Soviet support if the country faced any attack.
• Liberation of Bangladesh: A full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in December 1971. Within ten days the Indian army had surrounded Dhaka from three sides and the Pakistani army of about 90,000 had to surrender. 
  • With Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire.
•  Shimla Agreement: Later, the signing of the Shimla Agreement between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July 1972 formalized the return of peace.

Kargil Confrontation

Pakistani Infiltration in Kargil: In the early part of 1999, several points on the Indian side of the LoC in the Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar, and Batalik areas were occupied by forces claiming to be Mujahideens.

• Escalation to Kargil Conflict: Suspecting the involvement of Pakistan Army, Indian forces started reacting to this occupation. This led to a confrontation between two countries. This is known as the Kargil conflict. 
  • India recovered control of many of the lost points. 
• Nuclear Weapons: The Kargil conflict drew attention worldwide for the reason that only one year before that, both India and Pakistan had attained nuclear capability.
  •  However, this conflict remained confined only to the Kargil region. 
• Political Fallout in Pakistan: Soon after the conflict, the government of Pakistan was taken over by the Pakistan Army led by Army Chief, General Parvez Musharraf.

India’s Nuclear Policy

India’s nuclear program was initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha. India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.

• Jawahar Lal Nehru was against nuclear weapons.
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Concerns: When Communist China conducted nuclear tests in October 1964, five nuclear weapon powers, US, USSR, UK, France, and China (Taiwan then represented China) – also five Permanent Members of UN Security Council – tried to impose Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on rest of world.
• • India always considered NPT as discriminatory and refused to sign it.
• India’s Nuclear Program: First nuclear explosion was undertaken by India in May 1974, it was termed a peaceful explosion. 
  • India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes. 
• No First Use: India’s nuclear doctrine of credible minimum nuclear deterrence professes “no first use” and reiterates India’s commitment to global, verifiable, and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapons-free world.
  • India argued that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.

Conclusion

Although there are minor differences among political parties about how to conduct external relations, Indian politics is generally marked by a broad agreement among the parties on national integration, protection of international boundaries, and on questions of national interest. Therefore, we find that in the course of a decade of 1962-1971, when India faced three wars, or even later when different parties came to power from time to time, foreign policy played only a limited role in party politics.

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