The Meiji Restoration significantly reshaped Japan’s industrial landscape and labor force, bringing profound changes from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. This period saw the expansion of the industrial workforce, the emergence of patriarchal nationalism, aggressive militarization, and the struggle to balance Westernization with traditional values.

However, industrialization of Japan during the Meiji Era brought about significant changes in the labor force and the industrial landscape. Here are some key points:

Industrial Workers

Industrial Workforce Expansion: The number of people employed in manufacturing increased substantially during this period, rising from 700,000 in 1870 to 4 million in 1913.

• Characteristics of Labor: The majority of industrial workers were employed in small-scale units with fewer than five employees, and many of these units did not use machinery or electric power.
• Women’s Dominance in Factories: Over half of those employed in modern factories were women. In fact, it was women who organized the first modern strike in Japan in 1886. 
  • After 1900, the number of male workers began to increase, but it wasn’t until the 1930s that male workers outnumbered women in the workforce.
• Continuity of Small-Scale Production: Even in 1940, there were more than 550,000 workshops that employed less than five employees. This small-scale and family-centered industrial production was a notable feature of Japanese industrial development.
• Patriarchal Nationalism: Nationalism in Japan was reinforced by a strong patriarchal system, with the emperor symbolizing the role of a family patriarch.

• Environmental Challenges in Early Industrial Japan: The rapid and unregulated growth of industry, along with the demand for natural resources like timber, led to environmental degradation. 
  • Environmental concerns and protests against industrial pollution emerged in the late 19th century, with individuals like Tanaka Shozo leading early efforts to address these issues.
• Meiji Era Transformation: The transformation of Japan from a primarily agrarian society to an industrialized nation during the Meiji Era had a profound impact on the composition of the labor force, gender roles, and the industrial landscape.

Aggressive Nationalism

• The Meiji Constitution: The Meiji constitution established a limited franchise and a Diet(the Japanese used the German word for parliament because of the influence of German legal ideas) with restricted powers. 

• The Imperial Restoration: Leaders of the imperial restoration retained control, and political parties were formed. 
• Transition of Power: Popularly elected prime ministers served between 1918 and 1931, but afterward, power shifted to national unity cabinets. 
• Imperial Military Reforms: The emperor became commander of the forces, with the army and navy gaining independent control by 1890. 
• Militarization and Colonial Ambitions: In 1899, only serving generals and admirals could become ministers, strengthening the military. Japan’s colonial expansion and concerns about Western powers led to silencing opposition to military growth and increased taxes for defense.

‘Westernisation’ and ‘Tradition’

• Evolving Perspectives: Japanese intellectuals held evolving views on Japan’s relations with other countries over successive generations. 
  • Some aspired to Western civilization, viewing the USA and European countries as the pinnacle.

• Fukuzawa Yukichi Vision: believed Japan should “expel Asia” and shed its Asian characteristics to become Western. 
• Challenging Fukuzawa’s Legacy: The next generation challenged this perspective, emphasizing indigenous values and national pride. 
  • Miyake Setsurei argued that nations should develop unique talents in the interest of world civilization. 
• Toward Western Liberalism: Many intellectuals favored Western liberalism and democracy over military dominance, advocating for constitutional government and liberal education. 
  • Some even called for women’s voting rights, prompting the government to announce a constitution.

Daily Life

• Everyday Life in Transition: Japan’s transition to modernity is evident in the changes in everyday life. 
• Shifting Foundations: The traditional patriarchal household system, where multiple generations lived under the head of the family, gave way to new ideas of the nuclear family. 

• • The nuclear family consisted of a husband as the breadwinner and a wife as the homemaker. 
  • This shift in domesticity led to increased demand for new domestic goods, family entertainment options, and housing. 
• Housing Initiatives in 1920s Japan: In the 1920s, construction companies offered affordable housing options, requiring a down payment of 200 yen and a monthly installment of 12 yen for ten years, even as the monthly salary of a bank employee was 40 yen.

‘Overcoming Modernity’

• Peak of State-Centered Nationalism: In the 1930s and 1940s, Japan’s state-centered nationalism reached its peak as the country initiated wars to expand its empire in China and other parts of Asia, eventually leading to its involvement in World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 
• Societal Control and Patriotic Mobilization: During this period, there was increased societal control, the suppression and imprisonment of dissenting voices, and the formation of patriotic societies, including women’s organizations, to support the war effort.
• Navigating Modernity: A significant symposium in 1943, titled ‘Overcoming Modernity,’ debated Japan’s dilemma of countering the West while embracing modernity. 
• Harmony of Traditions and Modernity: Figures like musician Moroi Saburo and philosopher Nishitani Keiji raised questions about reconciling Japanese traditions with Western influences and finding new ways to integrate science and religion into a new vision for Japan’s role in the world.

After Defeat: Re-emerging as a Global Economic Power

• Imperial Aspirations Shattered: Japan’s attempt to establish a colonial empire ended in defeat by the Allied forces. 
• Post-World War II Transformation: After World War II, Japan was demilitarized, and a new constitution was introduced, including Article 9 (no war cause), which renounced war as a state policy.

• • Agrarian reforms, trade union reestablishment, and efforts to dismantle large monopoly houses (zaibatsu) were undertaken. 
• Revival of Democracy: Political parties were revived, and the first post-war elections were held in 1946, allowing women to vote for the first time.
• From Struggles to Miracles: The rapid post-war economic recovery in Japan, often called a “miracle,” was rooted in its historical tradition of popular struggles and political engagement. 
  • The social cohesion of the pre-war years was strengthened, allowing for a close working of the government, bureaucracy and industry.

• •  US support and demand created by the Korean and the Vietnamese wars also helped the Japanese economy.
• Technological Triumphs: The 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the development of high-speed Shinkansen (bullet trains) symbolized Japan’s ability to harness advanced technologies for better and more efficient production.
• The 1960s witnessed the rise of civil society movements as industrialization had led to health and environmental concerns, including cadmium and mercury poisoning and air pollution. 
• Grassroots pressure groups pushed for recognition and compensation for victims, leading to government actions and new regulations to address these issues. 
• Japan has maintained strict environmental controls but faces the challenge of using its political and technological capabilities to sustain its position as a global power.

Conclusion

The Meiji Era marked Japan’s rapid transformation into an industrial and military power. Despite facing environmental challenges and the complexities of modernization, Japan’s resilience and ability to integrate advanced technologies led to its post-war economic recovery, establishing it as a significant global player with stringent environmental controls and strong civil society movements.

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