Introduction
Mahatma Jotirao Phule (1827–1890) was a pioneering social reformer from Maharashtra whose work spanned caste, class, and gender inequalities. He championed the cause of marginalized sections, Dalits, Shudras, women, and peasants through his writings and activism. By targeting Brahmanical dominance, patriarchy, and economic exploitation, Phule became a forerunner of subaltern assertion in modern India.

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Phule’s Writings and Reforms for Subaltern Classes

• Women’s Education and Empowerment: In 1848, Mahatma Phule and Savitribai Phule opened the first girls’ school in Pune, breaking taboos against female literacy. He advocated for female teachers and opposed purdah.
• Caste Oppression and Untouchability: In Gulamgiri (1873), he compared caste-based exploitation in India with slavery in America. He denounced Brahmanical dominance and demanded dignity for Dalits and Atishudras.
• Shudra-Atishudra Mobilization: Championed education and organisation for Shudras and backward castes. Founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (1873) to promote equality, rationalism, and self-respect.
• Gender Injustices: Widowhood & Child Marriage: He advocated widow remarriage and opposed child marriage.
• Agrarian and Labor Exploitation: Criticized landlordism and Brahmin moneylenders who exploited peasants.
• Eg: He linked caste oppression with agrarian suffering in writings like Shetkaryacha Asud (The Cultivator’s Whipcord, 1881), highlighting the plight of farmers.
• Religious Dogma and Social Hierarchy: He rejected ritualism, idol worship, and priestly dominance and advocated rational thinking and equality.

Why Jotirao Phule’s effort could not achieve much success for the Subaltern classes

• Limited Educational Reach: Despite pioneering girls’ schools and Dalit/Shudra education, the spread of literacy was minimal due to poverty, lack of infrastructure, and social resistance.
• Strong Orthodoxy: Brahmanical orthodoxy resisted his challenges to caste rituals and priestly authority.
• Regional Scope: Phule’s impact was largely confined to western India, particularly Maharashtra.
• Economic Constraints:  Landlessness and bonded labor persisted despite his efforts.
• Absence of Political Backing: Phule’s reform agenda received little support from the colonial state, which avoided deep interference in caste hierarchies for fear of backlash.

Conclusion

Phule’s writings and reforms addressed nearly every subaltern group, making his movement uniquely broad-based. Though limited in reach during his lifetime, his emphasis on education, rationalism, and equality laid the foundation for later social justice movements led by leaders like Ambedkar. His legacy remains a beacon for inclusive reform in India.

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