A positive view of the modern world shows rapid technological advancements, new machines and transportation, and other signs of progress. The history of industrialization is thus often seen as a story of development, and modern age appears as a great time of technological advancements and development of print from its beginnings in East Asia to its expansion in Europe and India, and consider its impact on social lives and cultures.

In the Pre-industrial Era

Proto-Industrialization: It is a phase before the Industrial Revolution, large-scale industrial production for an international market existed, but it was not based on factories.

• Merchant-Driven Production: Proto-industrialization involved merchants coordinating the manufacturing of products in rural regions and subsequently selling them in global markets. 
  • A multitude of households worked in their own homes to produce the goods.
• Circumventing Urban Constraints: Merchants from towns in Europe moved to the countryside and supplied money to peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international market. 
  • This was because it was difficult to expand production in towns due to the power of urban crafts and trade guilds.
• Decentralized Production System: In the countryside, poor peasants and artisans worked for merchants. 
  • This system was controlled by merchants and goods were produced by a vast number of producers working within their family farms, not in factories. 
• Period of Interdependence: Proto-industrialization created a close interdependence between town and countryside. 
  • Merchants lived in towns and organized production in rural areas.

The Rise of Factories

Birth Period: The earliest factories in England appeared in the 1730s.

• Cotton Industry Boom: Cotton industry was first to boom, with imports increasing from 2.5 million pounds in 1760 to 22 million pounds in 1787. 
  • This was due to several factors, including new inventions that increased efficiency of production and creation of cotton mills.
• Factory System:  Richard Arkwright’s cotton mill brought all production processes under one roof, allowing for closer supervision and regulation. 
  • In early 19th century, factories became an intimate part of the English landscape.

Pace of Industrialization

Uneven Pace: Industrialization in Britain was a fast-paced process, but industrialization was not a uniform process across all industries and sectors. 

• The cotton and metal industries were most dynamic, growing rapidly. 
• Continuation of Traditional Industries: However, new industries did not easily replace traditional industries, and pace of change in these industries was slower. 
• • Technological changes also occurred slowly, and even the most powerful new technologies, such as the steam engine, were slow to be adopted by industrialists. 
• Dominance of Hand Labor: As a result, most workers in the mid-19th century were still traditional craftspeople or labourers, rather than machine operators.

Human and Hand Labour

Abundant Labor Supply: Industrialists in Victorian Britain did not have a strong incentive to use machines, as Britain had no shortage of labor, so industrialists did not need to invest in machines to reduce labor costs.

• Factors Limiting Machine Adoption: Some industries also require hand labor due to the seasonal nature of demand or the variety of products being produced. 
  • Additionally, the upper classes preferred handmade products, which further reduced the demand for machines.

Life of the Workers

The abundance of labor in the market affected the lives of workers in several ways: 

• High Job Competition: Workers had to travel to cities in search of jobs, and many had to wait for weeks or even months to find one. 
• Low Wages: The average figures hide variations between trades and fluctuations from year to year. 
  • In times of economic hardship, the real value of wages fell significantly. 
• Seasonal Employment: Many industries had peak and off seasons, so workers often experienced periods of unemployment. 
• Obstruction to New Technology: Workers were hostile to the introduction of new technology. They feared that machines would replace them and put them out of work.

Conclusion

Despite these challenges, there were some positive developments for workers in Victorian Britain. Building construction increased in urban areas after the 1840s, creating new job prospects. The amount of employees in the transportation sector increased twofold in the 1840s and then doubled once more in the following three decades.