Introduction
In the post-Vedic era, literature expanded beyond Sanskrit and included Pali and Prakrit languages. Both languages gained prominence in the creation of religious texts by Buddhists and Jains.
Buddhist Literature
- Buddhist literature is broadly categorized into-
- Canonical Literature:
- Buddhist literature comprises ‘Tripitak/Tipitaka‘, written in Pali and divided into three parts:
- Vinaya Pitaka: It contains the monastic rules of the Order of Buddhist monks.
- Sutta Pitaka: It is the collection of the teachings of the Buddha.
- Abhidhamma Pitaka: Elucidates the various topics dealing with ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge.
- Non-Canonical:
- A prime example of Buddhist non-canonical literature with Pali and Prakrit languages is the ‘Jatakas’.
- The Jataka stories narrate the previous births of the Buddha.
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Buddhist Texts
| Texts |
Description |
| Dipavamsa |
- It was written in the 3rd-4th centuries BC in Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka).
- It provides a historical account of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and narrates Buddha’s visit to Sri Lanka and the relics of Buddha.
|
| Milinda Panho |
- The book mentions the dialogue with Pali and Prakrit languages between King Meander (or Milinda) and Buddhist monk Nagasena.
|
| Mahavamsa |
- It is a Sri Lankan Pali account and dates back to 3rd-4th centuries BC.
- It provides a historical account of various kingdoms of South Asia.
|
| Mahavastu |
- It contains Jataka and Avadana tales written in Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit.
|
| Lalitavistara Sutra (“The Play in Full”) |
- It is a Mahayana text that narrates various stories related to the life of the Buddha until his first sermon at Sarnath.
|
| Udana |
- It is one of the oldest Theravada texts and includes the story of the “Blind Men and the Elephant.”
|
| Bodhi Vamsa |
- It is a prose poem written in the 10th century AD by Upatissa in Pali, Sri Lanka.
|
| Visuddhimagga |
- It is a Theravada text written by Buddhaghosa in the 5th century AD in Sri Lanka. It includes discussions on various teachings of the Buddha.
|
Jain Literature
- Jain Literature with Pali and Prakrit languages is generally written in Prakrit, Ardha Magadhi, Sanskrit, etc.
- They are divided into Canonical or religious texts called Jain Agamas or Agam and non-canonical literary works.
Jain Agamas
- With Jainism, they are canonical religious texts written in Pali and Prakrit languages that contain the teachings of Jain Tirthankaras.
- Initially, the Ganadharas—the principal followers of Mahavira—compiled them.
- The present Angas (a subset of the Agamas) were recompiled in a council of monks of the Svetambara sect held in Vallabhi, Gujarat, during the mid-5th century AD.
- The Digambaras reject Agamas.
- The Agamas with Pali and Prakrit languages consist of 46 texts – 12 Angas, 12 Upanga, 10 Prakirnakasutras, 4 Mulasutras, 6 Chedasutras, and 2 Chulikasutras.
- The 12 Angas are: Acharanga Sutra; Sutrakritanga; Sthananga Sutra; Samavayanga Sutra; Vyakhyaprajnapti or Bhagavati Sūtra; Upasakadasa; Antakrddaasah; Anuttaraupapatikadasah; Prasnavyakaranani; Vipakasruta; and Drstivada.
|
Prakrit Jain Work
Gatha Saptasati
|
- It contains 700 verses, with King Hala contributing 44 verses. The women poets wrote the other verses. It is often considered the opposite of the “Kamasutra“.
|
Uvasaggaharam Stotra
|
- It was composed by Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is an adoration of the twenty-third Tīirthankara Parsvanatha.
|
Kalpa Sutra
|
- It is a Śvetāmbara canonical scripture written partly in prose and partly in verse.
|
| Kalakacharya Katha |
- It tells the story of Kalak, a great Jain muni of the Shwetambar school and his sister.
|
Acharya Kundkund’s work
- Samayasāra expounded the Jain concepts like Karma, Asrava, Bandha, Samvara, Nirjara and Moksha.
- Niyamasara discusses the road to emancipation.
|
Zoroastrian Literature
- Avesta is a compilation of diverse writings spanning religious beliefs, practices, and guidance. It was written in Avestan, a language related to Sanskrit that is now extinct.
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- Denkard: It is a compilation of books & regarded as the Encyclopedia of Zoroastrianism. It was composed in the 10th century AD.
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- Bundahishn: The text provides an insight into the religion’s creation theory.
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Sikh Literature
- Adi Granth: It was written in Gurumukhi script by Bhai Gurdas under the aegis of the fifth guru, Guru Arjan Dev in 1604.
- It is a predecessor to Guru Granth Sahib and contains the teachings of the Sikh Gurus and fifteen Bhagats of Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
|
- Guru Granth Sahib: It is an expansion of Adi Granth under the tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, in 1678.
- It is regarded as the eleventh and final spiritual authority of the Sikhs.
- It is written in Gurumukhi script and ‘Sant Bhasa’ language. Sant Bhasa contains Punjabi, Apabhramsa, Hindi, Braj Bhasa, Sanskrit, Khadiboli, and Persian words.
- The book contains the teachings of thirteen Bhakti saints, called ‘Bhagats’, like Ramananda, Namadev, Ravidas, Parmanand, Sain, Surdas, Kabir and Baba Farid.
|
- Dasam Granth: It is a compilation of hymns written by Guru Gobind Singh.
- The compilation includes fables and Puranic stories, with certain hymns being part of the daily prayers known as “Nitnem“.
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- Janamsakhis: These books contain mythological stories about the life of Guru Nanak (first guru).
|
- Ardas: Prayers performed during daily rituals in Gurudwaras. These are recited during the opening and closing of Guru Granth Sahib.
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Conclusion
- Pali and Prakrit literature hold significant importance in understanding the spiritual and intellectual heritage of ancient India.
- Through their texts, they continue to inspire scholars and seekers alike, preserving the wisdom and teachings of the Buddha and Mahavira for generations to come.
April 13, 2024
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