Scientific Development Through Ages: Metallurgy, Navigation, Biology & More

Introduction

Scientific development through ages reflects humanity’s relentless pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the natural world. From ancient civilizations’ observations to modern technological advancements, each era has contributed to the evolution of scientific thought and innovation.

Metallurgy

• Indus Valley excavations reveal advanced metallurgical practices, evident in glazed potteries, bronze, and copper artifacts.
• Vedic people demonstrated knowledge of fermenting grain, fruit, leather tanning, and dyeing processes.
• By the first century AD, mass production of various metals (iron, copper, silver, gold) and alloys (brass, bronze) was underway.
• The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex attests to high-quality alloying techniques.
• Textile dyeing was a popular craft, with the Ajanta frescoes showcasing high-quality colour application.
• A notable discovery includes a two-meter-high bronze Buddha image found at Sultanganj (near Bhagalpur).

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Navigation

• The site of Lothal in Gujarat contains the remains of a dockyard, providing evidence of flourishing sea trade in ancient India.
• The “Yukti Kalpa Taru” is an ancient Sanskrit treatise that provides comprehensive insights into shipbuilding techniques of its time. 
• In ancient India, Ships were primarily categorized into two classes: the “Samanya”, or Ordinary class, and the “Vishesha” or Special class. 
  • The Ordinary class was designed for sea voyages and included two distinct types: the “Dirgha,” characterized by its long and narrow hull, and the “Unnata,” distinguished by its higher hull. 
  • Additionally, ships were further classified based on their length and cabin placement. “Sarvamandira” vessels featured cabins spanning the entire deck, often used for royal voyages and transporting horses. “Madhyamandira” referred to ships with cabins situated in the middle section of the deck, typically utilized for leisurely trips. 
  • Lastly, “Agramandira” denoted vessels specially designed for warfare. 

Biology

• In the 13th century, Hamsadeva compiled “Mrga-pasi-sastra,” offering a general account of hunting beasts and birds.
• Akbar focused on breeding high-quality domestic animals, including elephants and horses.
• Role of Jahangir:
• • Jahangir’s work, “Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri,” documented observations and experiments in weeding and hybridization, discussing around thirty-six animal species.
  • He was also a keen naturalist who, along with his court artists, documented around fifty-seven plant species in their floral portraits.
  • His court artists, particularly Mansur, created detailed and elegant animal portraits.

Chemistry

• Ancient literature was typically preserved on palm leaves in South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in northern regions before the use of writing paper.
• Paper production began in the medieval period, with notable centers in Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, and Mysore.
  • Paper-making techniques were similar across the country, differing only in the preparation of pulp from various raw materials.
  • During Tipu’s reign in Mysore, a special type of paper with a gold surface was produced in a dedicated factory.
• The Mughals had knowledge about gunpowder production and its use in firearms. 
• • Fireworks encompassed rockets, sparklers, coloured flares, and explosive devices. 
  • Tuzuk-i-Baburi details the process of casting cannons, involving melting metal and pouring it into moulds.
• In addition to explosives, other items were manufactured. Ain-i-Akbari mentions the regulations of Akbar‘s Perfume Office, highlighting the popularity of rose attar.
• Glazed tiles and pottery were also notable creations of this period.

Agriculture

• Notable regional specialities included black pepper from the Western Ghats, saffron and fruits from Kashmir, ginger, cinnamon from Tamil Nadu, cardamom, sandalwood, and coconuts from Kerala.
• New plants like tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew, and pineapple were introduced into India in the 16th and 17th centuries. [UPSC-2019]
• Foreigners introduced new crops, trees, and horticultural plants. 
  • Principal crops included wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane, and indigo.
• Regions like Malwa and Bihar were known for opium production from poppy plants.
• Horticultural techniques, like systematic mango grafting introduced by Jesuits in Goa.
• Irrigation methods included wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (leather buckets), and Dhenkli (a device to lift water with yoked oxen).
  • The Persian wheel was used around the Agra region for irrigation.

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Conclusion

• The trajectory of scientific development through ages underscores the resilience of human curiosity and ingenuity. 
  • From early philosophical inquiries to contemporary breakthroughs in space exploration and genetic engineering, our collective quest for knowledge continues to shape the world, driving progress and enriching human civilization.