Administration of Vijayanagar Empire: Nayaka System, Society, Economy

Introduction

Administration of Vijayanagar Empire was a complex yet organized system that evolved over centuries to govern a vast and diverse territory. Led by the king as the supreme authority, the empire was divided into administrative divisions overseen by appointed officials. The Nayaka system played a crucial role in governance, marking a significant departure from traditional administrative structures.

Administration, Society, and Economy of the Vijayanagar Empire

1. Administrative Structure of Vijayanagara

• Supreme Authority of the King: The king was the ultimate authority in the kingdom and supreme commander of the army. 
  • He was assisted by several high-ranking officers. 
• Mahapradhani (Chief minister): who led lower-ranking officers, like Dalavay (commander), Vassal (guard of the palace), Rayasam (secretary/ accountant), Adaippam (personal attendant), and Kariya-karta (executive agents).
• Administrative Divisions: created by Harihara I and successors: 
  • Kingdom was divided into Rajyas or Mandalam (provinces), which were further subdivided into  Nadu (district), Sthala (sub-district), and Grama (village).
  • Rajyas or provinces were governed by a governor called Pradhani. 
  • Prominent rajyas were the Hoysala rajya, Araga, Barakur (Mangalur), Muluvay. 
• Pradhani: was either a royal member or a military officer not related to the royal family. 
  • The pradhani had his own revenue accountants and military to assist in his administration. 
• Smaller Administrative Divisions: like Nadu, Sima, Sthala, Kampana, etc. with the village as its smallest unit.
  • The administrative and revenue status of the rajyas was diminished under the Tuluva dynasty due to the evolution of the Nayak system under Krishnadevaraya.

2. Nayaka System

• • Nayak: denotes military chiefs in Telugu and Kannada regions. (13th century onward), they usually controlled forts and had armed supporters.
  • Precedent in Kakatiya Kingdom: Revenue assigned to Nayaks for military service was present in the Kakatiya kingdom in the 13th century, which was similar to the Iqta system practiced by the Delhi sultanate.
  • Military Obligations of Nayaks: As per Nuniz, each Nayak kept a certain number of military forces (horses and foot soldiers) to serve the king in times of need. 
    • Nuniz’s account aligns with the Telugu work Rayavachakamu from Krishnadevaraya’s era. 
  • Corroboration by Historical Accounts: Nayaks paid a portion of revenue to the king during the Mahanavami festival.
  • Nayakas’ Allegiance and Rebellions: Many Nayakas submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara, but they often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action. Further, they were transferred from one place to another by the king.
  • Refinement of the Nayak System: Vamsavalis (family history) of Palayagars, who were heirs of old Nayak families, confirm that the Nayak system refined under Krishnadevaraya.
    • Caste Variation: They belonged to different castes, Brahmana as well as non-Brahmana. 
    • Diverse Social Origins: Non-Brahmin Nayak individuals had diverse social origins: Warriors, pastoral clans (Yadava, Billama), peasants (Reddi), merchants (Balija), and more.
    • Prominent Nayaks: Some of the prominent Nayak, like Chellappa under Krishnadevaraya, were Brahmanas.
  • Development of the Nayak System: In the Vijayanagar kingdom, this system became evident around 1500, solidified under Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Devaraya, as mentioned in the inscriptions: “Nayakkattanam” (Tamil), “Nayaktanam” (Kannada), and “Nayankaramu” (Telugu).

• Amar-Nayak: It was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.

• • Role and Responsibilities of Amara-nayakas: The Amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern b y the Raya.
  • Revenue Collection and Management: They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in the area.
  • Utilization of Revenue: They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants, providing the kings with an effective fighting force.
    • Administrative Functions of Nayaktanam Chiefs: Some of the revenue was used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works. 
• Evolution of Nayak Chiefs: Nayaktanam chiefs managed production through commercial centres (pettai), tax incentives, settlers, and irrigation.
  • Rise to Prominence: Many of them started as high officials (commanders, governors, accountants, etc.) and served as the king’s agents. 
  • Shift towards Independence: After the Talikota battle, Nayak chiefs became more or less independent of the Vijayanagar king. 
  • Establishment of Powerful States: Some of them, like those of Madurai, Tanjavur, Ikkeri, etc., established powerful states controlling many smaller chiefs under them. 

3. Society

• Disparity in Wealth: Foreign visitors noted the opulent lifestyles of rulers, officials, and elites in cities like Vijayanagar and Bijapur, contrasting with widespread poverty and the presence of slavery. 
  • There was a widening gap between the ruling class and the ruled.
• Impact of Warfare and Displacement: Continuous warfare and the resultant suffering led to displacement and migration of people.
• Women‘s Expertise and Roles: According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in the Vijayanagara Empire were experts in Wrestling, Astrology, Accounting, and Soothsaying.[UPSC 2021]  

4. Economy 

• Taxation: The State derived its revenue mainly through taxation. 

• • • Variable Tax: The tax rate varied according to the type of crops, soil, method of irrigation, etc.
    • Types of Taxes: In addition to the land taxes, there were various other taxes, such as property tax, taxes on the sale of produce, profession taxes, military contribution (in times of distress), tax on marriage, etc.

• Economic Activity: Initially agrarian, it transitioned to a commercial economy in the 14th century. 

• Emergence of Commercial and Weaving Centers: A large number of commercial and weaving centres came up in northern Tamil Nadu, Rayalaseema, and coastal Andhra. Artisans like weavers, smiths, and masons became more prominent in society. 

• • • Rise of Non-Agrarian Crafts: The Vijayanagara era saw significant growth in non-agrarian crafts. 
    • Pattadaior and Kasayavargam: These non-agrarian groups were generally called the Pattadaior (workshop people) and Kasayavargam (the group that pays taxes in cash).
    • Nayaka Promotion of Crafts: In the 16th century, Nayakas promoted crafts like weaving with occasional tax incentives under the Nayak system.

• Trade: Inland, coastal, and overseas trade led to the general prosperity of the Kingdom. 

• • Control of Horse Trade: Initially, the trade in Horses in Vijayanagar was controlled by Arab traders who imported horses from Arabia and Central Asia, which were important for the rival kingdoms too.
  • Role of Kudirai Chettis: Local communities of merchants known as Kudirai Chettis (horse merchants) also participated in these exchanges.
  • Diverse Market Offerings: Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles, and precious stones.
  • Emergence of Monetary Economy: As the money economy emerged, there was a surge in the use of coins. 
    • Vijayanagara Coinage: The chief gold coin of the Vijayanagar Empire was the Varaha. The Perta was half a Varaha. Fanam was one-tenth a Perta.[UPSC 2022]

Conclusion

Administration of Vijayanagar Empire reflects the empire’s dynamic and innovative approach to governance. From the establishment of administrative divisions to the evolution of the Nayaka system, the empire adapted to changing circumstances while maintaining stability and order. Despite its eventual decline, the legacy of Vijayanagar’s administration continues to influence South Indian history and governance systems to this day.

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